Scientific and technological revolution is a qualitative revolution in the productive forces of mankind, based on the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society.
Scientific and technological revolutions:
- XVIII - XIX centuries. - The transition from manual labor to large-scale machine production, the use of steam energy.
- late 19th – early 20th centuries - The use of electricity, the emergence of new sectors of the economy: mechanical engineering, aircraft construction, aluminum production, etc.
- mid-twentieth century - The use of atomic energy, the development of electronics, space technology.
Characteristic features of the NTR
1. Universality, inclusiveness of scientific and technological revolution:
- transforms all industries and sectors of the economy
- changes the nature of work, life, culture, psychology of people
- affects every country in the world
- leads to a change in the geographic envelope of the Earth and near space
2. Acceleration of scientific and technological transformations.
- It is expressed in a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its introduction into production, in a faster, “obsolescence” and in a constant renewal of products.
3. And ntelektualization of labor resources.
- The scientific and technological revolution has sharply increased the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources, which has led to an increase in the share of mental labor in all spheres of human activity.
4. Military-technical revolution.
- Scientific and technological revolution was born during the Second World War as a military-technical revolution: its beginning was heralded by the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima in 1945.
- For " cold war» The scientific and technological revolution was focused on the use of the latest achievements of scientific and technical thought for military purposes. This orientation continues to this day.
Components of scientific and technological revolution
Science (development of science-intensive production).
- In the era of scientific and technological revolution has become a very complex body of knowledge
- About 10 million people are involved in science, that is, more than 9-10 scientists who have ever lived on Earth are our contemporaries.
- Increased links between science and production, which is becoming knowledge-intensive
- There are very large differences between economically developed and developing countries in the connection between science and production.
— Example: The United States occupies the first place in the world in terms of the absolute number of scientists and engineers, followed by Japan and the countries of Western Europe, where spending on science accounts for 23% of GDP. Despite a significant decline in the number of scientists in the 1990s, Russia is still among the leaders. At the beginning of the XXI century. China also entered. And in most developing countries, spending on science does not exceed 0.5% on average.
Technique and technology.
Embodied in themselves scientific knowledge and discoveries.
Functions of technique and technology:
- labor saving
- Informational
- environmental
- resource saving
— Example:
The Federal Republic of Germany and the USA stand out in particular for the production of environmental protection equipment and the introduction of environmental technology, while the FRG ranks first in the export of such equipment.
— Example:
In Great Britain and Italy, 2/3 of steel is obtained from scrap metal; in the FRG and Great Britain, more than 2/3 of paper is obtained from waste paper; in the USA and Japan, most of the aluminum is recycled.
Technique and technology.
Development ways:
- Evolutionary - It consists in improving the already known equipment and technology in increasing the power (productivity) of machines and equipment, in increasing the carrying capacity of vehicles.
— Example: At the beginning of the 50s. the largest sea tanker contained 50 thousand tons of oil. In the 60s. supertankers appeared with a carrying capacity of 100, 200, 300, and in the 70s, 400, 500, 550 thousand tons.
- Revolutionary - It consists in the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology.
— Example: In mechanical engineering, this is the transition from mechanical methods of processing metals to non-mechanical ones - electrochemical, plasma, laser, radiation, ultrasonic, vacuum, etc. In metallurgy, this is the use of new methods for producing cast iron, steel and rolled products, in agriculture, plowless agriculture, in the field of communications - radio relay, fiberglass communications, telexes, telefaxes, e-mail, paging and cellular communications, etc.
Production: directions of development:
- Electronization.
- Complex automation.
- Restructuring of the energy sector.
- Production of new materials.
- Application of biotechnology.
- Cosmization.
- Example: The development of astronautics has led to the emergence of another new science-intensive branch of the aerospace industry. It is associated with the emergence of many new machines, devices, alloys, some of them then find application in non-space industries.
Control. Cybernetics is a special science of control.
- The volume of scientific knowledge and the number of sources of information are growing very rapidly.
- The transition from ordinary (paper) to machine information.
- The production of various information technology has already become one of the newest science-intensive industries, and its maintenance has brought to life new specialties of programmers, operators, etc.
- Formation of a global information space
- Example: In the US, the Internet is already used by 70% of all residents. According to this indicator, they are noticeably superior to Western Europe and Japan. The United States also ranked first in the world in the development of cellular telephone communications, but lost it to China.
Presentation
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Target: Show the features of the development of scientific and technological revolution, its characteristic features and components.
Teaching and educational tasks:
- Form the concept of scientific and technological revolution; introduce the features and parts of the NTR.
- To form the ability to listen and highlight the main thing in the content, schematically draw up a summary.
- Show the scale of scientific and technological achievements of mankind.
Lesson type: learning new material, lesson-lecture.
Lesson steps:
- Distribute the lecture scheme, consisting of blocks and their parts, placed on an A4 sheet, to distribute to students. During the lesson, students will be able to make notes on it.
- The same scheme is placed on the board. In the course of the lecture, we will return to it, marking what has already been completed.
- During the lesson, students get acquainted with the key words-terms:
- Geoinformatics;
- Geoinformation systems.
- Listening to a lecture is accompanied by a detailed summary.
- At the end of the lesson, students formulate brief conclusions.
Equipment: textbooks, wall "Political Map of the World", atlas maps, handouts, computer, projector, screen, presentation.
During the classes
I. Organization of the class.
II. Learning new material.
Introduction to the topic.(Slide 1)
Definition of goals.
Today we must find out the characteristic features and components of the scientific and technological revolution, to show that the scientific and technological revolution is a single complex system.
Epigraph. (Slide 2)
Acquaintance of students with the stages of the lesson and with the task for the lesson. (Slide 3)
Lecture plan: (Slide 4)
- Scientific and technological revolution
- Character traits NTR.
- Components of NTR.
- The concept of geographic information systems.
1. Work with the concept of scientific and technological revolution. (Slides 5-6)
Teacher: When studying this topic, we have to turn to one of the most significant, global processes of development of the entire modern world - the scientific and technological revolution.
The entire history of the development of human society is inextricably linked with scientific and technological progress. But there are periods when there are rapid and profound changes in the productive forces of mankind.
Such was the period of industrial revolutions in the XVIII-XIX centuries. in a number of countries of the world, when machine labor replaced manual labor. In the 19th century, the steam engine was invented in England, and the invention of the conveyor belt played a huge role in the development of industrial production. It was first used in the United States in the manufacture of automobiles.
The steam engine became the "primary" cell of the industrial revolution in the century before last, and the computer became the "primary" cell of modern scientific and technological revolution. Modern scientific and technological revolution began in the middle of the 20th century. In all countries, it manifests itself in different ways, and therefore it can be said that it is far from being completed. But a new industrial revolution is already brewing in the world. What it will be - the future will show.
Conversation with the class
Questions:
- The word "revolution" in various dictionaries has the following interpretation. (Students quote the definition of "revolution" from different dictionaries)
- What unites all these definitions?
- How would you define NTR?
- What is the difference between the concepts of scientific and technological progress and scientific and technological progress?
Answer:
Exercise: Analyze the two formulations, compare them and find the main difference between the two phenomena?
Answer:
Modern science has become an industry of discovery, a powerful stimulus for the development of technology.
2. Characteristic features of scientific and technological revolution. (Slide 7)
1) Universality, inclusiveness. (Slides 8-10)
Scientific and technological revolution has affected all countries of the world and all spheres of the geographical shell, outer space. Scientific and technological revolution transforms all branches of production, the nature of labor, life, culture, and the psychology of people. Scientific and technological revolution symbols: rocket, TV set, computer, etc.
The inclusiveness of scientific and technological revolution can be characterized geographically, since thanks to scientific and technological revolution, the words satellite, atom, robot appeared in our vocabulary.
Question: Name the new appliances that have appeared in your home over the past 10 years. What technique does your grandmother, mother, not know how to use?
2) Acceleration of scientific and technological transformations. (Slide 11)
It is expressed in a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its implementation in production. Moral wear and tear occurs earlier than physical wear and tear, therefore, for some classes, car repair makes no sense (for example: computers, video cameras, TVs, etc.)
Working with the textbook
Exercise:
- Find an example in the additional text (p. 103) that would confirm this feature of NTR.
- Analyze the table and draw conclusions.
3) Increasing requirements for the skill level of labor resources. (Slide 12)
In all spheres of human activity, the share of mental labor has increased, its intellectualization has taken place.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, workers with higher education increased the share of knowledge workers. This also applies to you. After graduating from high school, you will find it easier to find an interesting and well-paid job.
4) Military-technical revolution. (Slide 13)
It originated during the Second World War. Its beginning was heralded by the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, after which an arms race began between the two powerful powers of the USA and the USSR. Throughout the entire period of the Cold War, scientific and technological revolution was focused on using the latest achievements of scientific and technical thought for military purposes. But after the commissioning of the first nuclear power plant and the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, many countries are doing everything to direct the scientific and technological revolution to achieve peaceful goals.
3. Components of scientific and technological revolution.(Slide 14)
Scientific and technological revolution is a single complex system, the parts of which closely interact with each other.
1) Science and science intensity . (Slides 15-17)
Science in the era of scientific and technological revolution has become a complex set of knowledge. Science is both a complex of knowledge and a special sphere of human activity. For many countries, the development of science is task No. 1.
There are 5 to 6 million scientific workers in the world. At the same time, the USA, Germany, Japan, France and Great Britain account for more than 80% of scientific employees, more than 80% of all investments in science, almost all inventions, patents, licenses and Nobel Prizes awarded.
- In developed countries, in terms of the number of scientists and engineers, they occupy: 1st place - the United States, 2nd place - Japan, the countries of Western Europe (this group includes Russia).
The connection between science and production is especially growing, which is becoming more and more knowledge-intensive(Science intensity is measured by the level (share) of research and development costs in the total costs of producing a particular product).
However, the differences between developed and developing countries in the field of science are especially large:
- Spending on science in developed countries is 2-3% of GDP;
- In developing countries, spending on science on average does not exceed 0.5% of GDP.
2) Technique and technology. (Slide 18)
Technique and technology embody scientific knowledge and discoveries.
The purpose of new technologies is to increase the environmental activity of production, labor productivity, resource saving and nature protection.
Germany and the USA stand out for the production of environmental protection equipment and the introduction of the latest environmental technologies. In addition to the fact that these countries are leaders in the production and use of environmental technologies, Germany is also the main country that supplies them to the world market.
Two ways of developing technology technology in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution:
- evolutionary path
- revolutionary path
(Slide 19)
a) Evolutionary path (Further improvement of engineering and technology)
(Slide 20)
Question for the class: Give examples of the evolutionary path of development of engineering and technology.
Answer:
Improving the technology that was produced at the beginningXXcentury - cars, aircraft, machine tools, blast furnaces, ships.
For example, in the early 50s, the largest sea tanker could hold up to 50 thousand tons of oil, in the 60s - 100, 200, 300 thousand tons, in the 70s. tankers with a carrying capacity of over 500 thousand tons appeared. The largest offshore tankers were built in Japan and France.
However, such megalomania does not always justify itself, since not all seaports can accept and serve such a large transport. After all, the length of the vessel reaches 480 m, the width is about 63 m, such a tanker has a draft with a load of up to 30 meters. The propeller is equal to the height of a three-story house, the deck occupies 2.5 hectares)
b) Revolutionary path (Transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology).
It finds its most striking expression in the production of electronic equipment. If earlier they talked about the “age of textiles”, “the age of the car”, now they are talking about the “age of electronics”.
The breakthrough to new technologies is also of great importance. "Second wave" of scientific and technological revolution, which manifested itself in the 70s. called the microelectronic revolution, because. the invention of the microprocessor in the history of mankind can be compared with the invention of the wheel, steam engine or electricity. (Slides 21-26)
Exercise: Analyze the text of the textbook on p. 94, as well as additional material on p. 115.
Conclusion(students do it themselves): The revolutionary path is the main path in the development of engineering and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution.
3) Production: six main areas of development.(Slides 27-29)
Question: What are the main directions of development of production. (Students have a handout that can be used to answer the question posed by the teacher)
a) Electronization means the saturation of all areas of human activity with the means of EWT. The electronics industry is the brainchild of scientific and technological revolution.
For example:
- in education - computerization of schools, their connection to the Internet;
- in medicine - ultrasound, computed tomography, development of microsurgery, computed radiography;
- in communication - cell phones.
The electronic industry is in the fullest sense the brainchild of scientific and technological revolution. It will largely determine the entire course of scientific and technological revolution.
This branch has received the greatest development in the USA, Japan, Germany, NIS of Asia.
b) Integrated automation. (Slides 30-34)
It began in the 1950s with the advent of computers. A new round of development occurred in the 70s of the XX century, and it is associated with the advent of microprocessors and microcomputers. Robotics is developing rapidly, Japan has achieved particular success in this area. There are 800 robots for every 10,000 auto workers in the country, compared to 300 in the US. The scope of robots today is limitless.
c) Energy economy restructuring. (Slides 35-37)
The restructuring of the energy sector is associated with the ever-growing needs of the countries of the world for electricity. Existing traditional power plants can no longer cope with the load. That's why most attention in the world is given to the construction of nuclear power plants.
By the beginning of the 21st century, more than 450 nuclear power units were in operation in the world. Leading countries: USA, France, Japan, Germany, Russia, Ukraine. However, in last years, due to the difficulties of using nuclear power plants, many countries are afraid of environmental consequences, and the developed countries of the world have paid attention to alternative energy.
d) Production of new materials. (Slides 38, 39)
The requirements of modern production for ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as for the chemical industry, which produces synthetic polymers, are steadily increasing. But it brought to life fundamentally new composite, semiconductor, metal-ceramic materials. The chemical industry is mastering the production of optical fibers.
A special role in the production of new materials is assigned to the "metals of the XX century": beryllium, lithium, titanium. Titanium is currently the No. 1 metal for the aerospace industry, nuclear shipbuilding, as it is a light and refractory metal.
e) Accelerated development of biotechnology. (Slides 40-42)
The direction arose in the 70s and is developing at a faster pace. Biotechnology uses traditional knowledge and modern technology to modify the genetic material of plants, animals and microbes to create new products.
Biotechnology makes a significant contribution to improving health, increasing food production, reforestation, increasing productivity in industry, disinfecting water, and cleaning up hazardous waste.
The results of biotechnology can already be seen. This includes the creation of clones and modified products. More and more often we hear about the discoveries of medical scientists in the field of genetic engineering.
Of great importance are biotechnological programs that are used in the extraction of mineral resources. Biotechnologies are developing especially successfully in the USA, Japan, Germany, and France.
f) Cosmization. (Slide 43)
The development of astronautics has led to the emergence of another new science-intensive industry - the aerospace industry. The use of space only for military purposes ended with the Cold War.
Space is increasingly becoming a place where the countries of the world cooperate. It is used to explore the Earth, in fishing, in agriculture, to obtain new materials in a vacuum.
It was space images that confirmed Wegener's theory "On the movement of lithospheric plates." The results of space research have a huge impact on the development of fundamental sciences.
4) Management: on the way to a high information culture. (Slide 44)
The current stage of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by new requirements for the management of modern production. It is incredibly complicated and requires special training.
For example: in the implementation of space programs, such as landing a lunar rover on the moon, research and landing of descent vehicles on planets solar system, landing a man on the moon, sometimes several tens of thousands of different companies are tied up, which must work in a coordinated mode.
Only people who are fluent in the science of management can manage such programs. At the end of the 20th century, a special science of management arose - cybernetics . At the same time, it is the science of information.
The information flow is growing every day. That is why the transition from paper to machine information is so important. New specialties appeared that did not exist before: a programmer, a computer operator, and others.
We live in an era of "information explosion". Nowadays, there is already a global information space. The Internet plays a big role in its creation.
This is a real telecommunications "web" that has enveloped the whole world. The use of the Internet is in full swing in education. She did not bypass the geographical science, which included a new direction - geographic informatics .
4. Geoinformatics contributed to the creation of geographic information systems.
(GIS is a complex of interconnected means of obtaining, storing, processing, selecting data and issuing geographic information.)
Geoinformatics is one of the main directions of combining geographical science with the achievements of the modern stage of scientific and technological revolution.
III. Lesson summary:
1) Checking the schematic outline.
2) Fixing:
Assignment on the topic of scientific and technological revolution: Determine the place of the following provisions in the table:
- Production of new materials.
- Complex automation.
- Restructuring of the energy sector.
- Accelerated development of biotechnology.
- Acceleration of scientific and technological transformations.
- Cosmization.
- Increasing qualification requirements.
- The birth of scientific and technological revolution as a military-technical revolution.
- Versatility and inclusiveness.
- Electronization.
There should be time for questions at the end of the lecture. Questions received at the lecture must be recorded, collected, systematized and studied.
IV. Homework
- Topic 4, §1 in V.P. Maksakovskiy "Economic and social geography of the world"
- Prepare presentations on topics:
- "Using the achievements of scientific and technological revolution in geography",
- "The development of biotechnology in modern world”, “Space and scientific and technological revolution”
Interesting Facts
In the first half of the 20th century, the volume of scientific information doubled every 50 years, in the middle of the century - 10 years, in the 70s-80s - 5-7 years, in the 21st century - 3-5 years.
In 1900, 10 thousand magazines were published all over the world, and at the beginning of the 21st century - more than 1 million.
In geography alone, 700 journals are published today and 10,000 book titles are published a year.
And in total, 800 thousand titles of books and brochures are published annually in the world with a total circulation of more than 16 billion copies.
The modern scientific and technological revolution has entailed fundamental changes in human society, in production, in the interaction of society with the environment.
However, it should be noted that scientific and technological revolution is developing most successfully in the developed countries of the world, while most countries in Africa, Oceania, some countries of Asia and Latin America are still far from developing the achievements of scientific and technological revolution in their country.
Literature
- Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. – M.: Enlightenment, 2006.
- Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Global geography. – M.: Enlightenment, 2001.
- Maksakovskiy V.P. Toolkit"Economic and social geography of the world" - M .: Education, 2006.
- Maksakovskiy V.P. New in the world. Figures and facts. - M .: Bustard, 1999
IX.7. Scientific and technological revolution, its technological and social consequences
Scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a concept used to refer to those qualitative transformations that took place in science and technology in the second half of the twentieth century. The beginning of the scientific and technological revolution dates back to the mid-1940s. XX century In the course of it, the process of turning science into a direct productive force is completed. Scientific and technological revolution changes the conditions, nature and content of labor, the structure of productive forces, the social division of labor, the sectoral and professional structure of society, leads to a rapid increase in labor productivity, affects all aspects of society, including culture, life, people's psychology, the relationship of society with nature.
The scientific and technological revolution is a long process that has two main prerequisites - scientific and technological and social. The most important role in the preparation of the scientific and technological revolution was played by the successes of natural science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as a result of which a radical change took place in the views on matter and a new picture of the world was formed. The following were discovered: the electron, the phenomenon of radioactivity, X-rays, the theory of relativity and quantum theory were created. Science has made a breakthrough into the microworld and high speeds.
A revolutionary shift also occurred in technology, primarily under the influence of the use of electricity in industry and transport. Radio was invented and became widespread. Aviation was born. In the 40s. science has solved the problem of splitting the atomic nucleus. Mankind has mastered atomic energy. The emergence of cybernetics was of paramount importance. Research into the creation of atomic reactors and the atomic bomb forced the capitalist states for the first time to organize interaction between science and industry within the framework of a major national scientific and technical project. It served as a school for nationwide scientific and technical research programs.
A sharp increase in allocations for science and the number of research institutions began. 1 Scientific activity has become a mass profession. In the second half of the 50s. Under the influence of the successes of the USSR in the study of outer space and the Soviet experience in the organization and planning of science in most countries, the creation of national bodies for planning and managing scientific activities began. Direct ties between scientific and technical developments have intensified, and the use of scientific achievements in production has accelerated. In the 50s. electronic computers (computers) are created and are widely used in scientific research, production, and then management, which have become a symbol of scientific and technological revolution. Their appearance marks the beginning of the gradual transfer to the machine of performing the elementary logical functions of a person. The development of informatics, computer technology, microprocessors and robotics created the conditions for the transition to integrated automation of production and control. A computer is a fundamentally new type of technology that changes the position of a person in the production process.
At the present stage of its development, the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the following main features.
1). .The transformation of science into a direct productive force as a result of merging together a revolution in science, technology and production, strengthening the interaction between them and reducing the time from the birth of a new scientific idea to its production implementation. 1
2). A new stage in the social division of labor associated with the transformation of science into the leading sphere of the development of society.
3). Qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces - the object of labor, the tools of production and the worker himself; increasing intensification of the entire production process due to its scientific organization and rationalization, constant updating of technology, energy conservation, reduction of material consumption, capital intensity and labor intensity of products. The new knowledge acquired by society makes it possible to reduce the cost of raw materials, equipment and labor, recouping the costs of research and development many times over.
4) A change in the nature and content of labor, an increase in the role of creative elements in it; the transformation of the production process from a simple labor process into a scientific process.
5). The emergence on this basis of the material and technical prerequisites for reducing manual labor and replacing it with mechanized labor. In the future, there is an automation of production based on the use of electronic computers.
6). Creation of new energy sources and artificial materials with predetermined properties.
7). The enormous increase in the social and economic significance of information activity, the gigantic development of the mass media communications .
8). Growth in the level of general and special education and culture of the population.
9). Increase in free time.
10). An increase in the interaction of sciences, a comprehensive study of complex problems, the role of social sciences.
eleven). A sharp acceleration of all social processes, further internationalization of all human activity on a planetary scale, the emergence of so-called global problems.
Along with the main features of the scientific and technological revolution, certain stages of its development and the main scientific, technical and technological directions characteristic of these stages can be distinguished.
Achievements in the field of atomic physics (the implementation of a nuclear chain reaction that opened the way to the creation of atomic weapons), the successes of molecular biology (expressed in the disclosure of the genetic role of nucleic acids, the decoding of the DNA molecule and its subsequent biosynthesis), as well as the emergence of cybernetics (which established a certain analogy between living organisms and some technical devices that are information converters) gave rise to the scientific and technological revolution and determined the main natural scientific directions of its first stage. This stage, which began in the 1940s and 1950s, continued almost until the end of the 1970s. The main technical areas of the first stage of the scientific and technological revolution were nuclear power engineering, electronic computers (which became the technical basis of cybernetics), and rocket and space technology.
Since the end of the 1970s, the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution began, which continues to this day. The most important characteristic At this stage of the scientific and technological revolution were the latest technologies that did not exist in the middle of the twentieth century (which is why the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution even received the name of the "scientific and technological revolution"). These latest technologies include flexible automated production, laser technology, biotechnology, etc. At the same time, the new stage of scientific and technological revolution not only did not discard many traditional technologies, but made it possible to significantly increase their efficiency. For example, flexible automated production systems for processing the object of labor still use traditional cutting and welding, and the use of new structural materials (ceramics, plastics) has significantly improved the performance of the well-known internal combustion engine. “Pushing up the known limits of many traditional technologies, modern stage scientific and technological progress brings them, as it seems today, to the "absolute" exhaustion of the possibilities inherent in them and thereby prepares the prerequisites for an even more decisive revolution in the development of productive forces. 1
The essence of the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution, defined as the "scientific and technological revolution", is an objectively natural transition from various kinds of external, mainly mechanical, influences on objects of labor to high-tech (submicron) influences at the microstructure level of both inanimate and living matter. Therefore, the role played by genetic engineering and nanotechnology at this stage of scientific and technological revolution is not accidental.
Over the past decades, the range of research in the field of genetic engineering has significantly expanded: from the production of new microorganisms with predetermined properties to the cloning of higher animals (and, in a possible future, of man himself). The end of the twentieth century was marked by unprecedented success in deciphering the genetic basis of man. In 1990 The international project "Human Genome" was launched, which aims to obtain a complete genetic map of Homo sapiens. More than twenty most scientifically developed countries, including Russia, take part in this project.
Scientists managed to obtain a description of the human genome much earlier than planned (2005-2010). Already on the eve of the new, XXI century, sensational results were achieved in the implementation of this project. It turned out that the human genome contains from 30 to 40 thousand genes (instead of the previously assumed 80-100 thousand). This is not much more than that of a worm (19 thousand genes) or fruit flies (13.5 thousand). However, according to the director of the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Academician E. Sverdlov, “it is too early to complain that we have fewer genes than expected. First, as organisms become more complex, the same gene performs many more functions and is able to encode more proteins. Secondly, there is a mass of combinatorial options that simple organisms do not have. Evolution is very economical: in order to create a new one, it is engaged in “turning over” the old, and not inventing everything again. In addition, even the most elementary particles, like a gene, are actually incredibly complex. Science will just go to the next level of knowledge.” 2
The deciphering of the human genome has provided enormous, qualitatively new scientific information for the pharmaceutical industry. However, it turned out that the use of this scientific wealth of the pharmaceutical industry today is beyond its power. We need new technologies that will appear, as expected, in the next 10-15 years. It is then that the drugs that come directly to the diseased organ will become a reality, bypassing all side effects. Transplantology will reach a qualitatively new level, cell and gene therapy will develop, medical diagnostics will change radically, and so on.
One of the most promising areas in the field of new technologies is nanotechnology. The sphere of nanotechnology, one of the most promising areas in the field of the latest technologies, has become the processes and phenomena occurring in the microcosm, measured in nanometers, i.e. billionths of a meter (one nanometer is about 10 atoms located close one after the other). Back in the late 1950s, the prominent American physicist R. Feynman suggested that the ability to build electrical circuits from several atoms could have "a huge number of technological applications." However, at that time no one took this assumption of the future Nobel laureate seriously. 1
Subsequently, research in the field of physics of semiconductor nanoheterostructures laid the foundations for new information and communication technologies. The successes achieved in these studies, which are of great importance for the development of optoelectronics and high-speed electronics, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000, which was shared by the Russian scientist, Academician Zh.A. Alferov and American scientists G. Kremer and J. Kilby.
High growth rates in the 80s-90s of the twentieth century in the information technology industry were the result of the universal nature of the use of information technologies, their wide distribution in almost all sectors of the economy. In the course of economic development, the efficiency of material production has become increasingly determined by the scale of use and the qualitative level of development of the non-material sphere of production. This means that a new resource is involved in the production system - information (scientific, economic, technological, organizational and managerial), which, integrating with the production process, largely precedes it, determines its compliance with changing conditions, and completes the transformation of production processes into scientific production.
Since the 1980s, first in Japanese, then in Western economic literature, the term “softization of the economy” has become widespread. Its origin is connected with the transformation of the non-material component of information-computing systems (“soft” means of software, mathematical support) into a decisive factor in increasing the efficiency of their use (compared to the improvement of their real, “hard” hardware). It can be said that "... the increase in the influence of the non-material component on the entire course of reproduction is the essence of the concept of softization." 1
The softization of production as a new technical and economic trend marked those functional shifts in economic practice that became widespread during the deployment of the second stage of scientific and technological revolution. A distinctive feature of this stage “... lies in the simultaneous coverage of almost all elements and stages of material and non-material production, the sphere of consumption, and the creation of prerequisites for a new level of automation. This level provides for the unification of the processes of development, production and sale of products and services into a single continuous flow based on the interaction of such areas of automation that are developing today in many ways independently, such as information and computer networks and data banks, flexible automated production, automatic design systems, CNC machines, systems for transporting and accumulating products and managing technological processes, robotic complexes. The basis for such integration is the wide involvement in the production consumption of a new resource - information, which opens the way for the transformation of previously discrete production processes into continuous ones, creates the prerequisites for moving away from Taylorism. When assembling automated systems, a modular principle is used, as a result of which the problem of operational change, equipment readjustment becomes an organic part of the technology and is carried out at minimal cost and with virtually no loss of time. 2
The second stage of the scientific and technical revolution turned out to be largely associated with such a technological breakthrough as the emergence and rapid spread of microprocessors on large integrated circuits (the so-called "microprocessor revolution"). This largely led to the formation of a powerful information-industrial complex, including electronic computer engineering, microelectronic industry, the production of electronic means of communication and a variety of office and household equipment. This large complex of industries and services is focused on information services for both social production and personal consumption (a personal computer, for example, has already become a common durable household item).
The decisive invasion of microelectronics is changing the composition of fixed assets in non-material production, primarily in the credit and financial sphere, trade, and healthcare. But this does not exhaust the influence of microelectronics on the sphere of non-material production. New industries are being created, the scale of which is comparable to the branches of material production. For example, in the United States, the sale of software tools and services related to computer maintenance already in the 80s exceeded in monetary terms the production volumes of such large sectors of the American economy as aviation, shipbuilding or machine tool building.
On the agenda of modern science is the creation of a quantum computer (QC). There are several currently intensively developed areas: solid-state QC on semiconductor structures, liquid computers, QC on "quantum filaments", on high-temperature semiconductors, etc. In fact, all branches of modern physics are presented in attempts to solve this problem. 1
So far, we can only talk about the achievement of some preliminary results. Quantum computers are still being designed. But when they leave the confines of the laboratories, the world will be much different. The expected technological breakthrough should surpass the achievements of the "semiconductor revolution", as a result of which vacuum vacuum tubes gave way to silicon crystals.
Thus, the scientific and technological revolution entailed the restructuring of the entire technical basis, the technological mode of production. At the same time, it caused serious changes in the social structure of society and influenced the spheres of education, leisure, and so on.
You can see what changes are taking place in society under the influence of scientific and technological progress. Changes in the structure of production are characterized by the following figures . 2 At the beginning of the 19th century, almost 75 percent of the US labor force was employed in agriculture; by the middle of it, this share had dropped to 65 percent, while in the early 1940s it fell to 20 percent, having decreased by a little over three times in a hundred and fifty years. Meanwhile, over the past five decades, it has decreased by another eight times and today, according to various estimates, is from 2.5 to 3 percent. Slightly differing in absolute values, but completely coinciding in their dynamics, similar processes developed in the same years in most European countries. At the same time, there was a no less dramatic change in the share of those employed in industry. If at the end of the First World War the shares of workers in agriculture, industry and the service sector (primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of production) were approximately equal, then by the end of the Second World War the share of the tertiary sector exceeded the shares of the primary and secondary combined. If in 1900 63 percent of Americans employed in the national economy produced material goods, and 37 percent - services, then in 1990 this ratio was already 22 to 78, and the most significant changes have occurred since the early 50s, when the aggregate growth of employment in agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries, construction, transportation and utilities, that is, in all industries that can be attributed to one degree or another to the field of material production.
In the 1970s, in Western countries (in Germany since 1972, in France since 1975, and then in the USA), an absolute reduction in employment in material production began, and first of all in the material-intensive sectors of mass production. If in general in the US manufacturing industry from 1980 to 1994 employment decreased by 11 percent, then in metallurgy the decline was more than 35 percent. The trends that have emerged over the past decades seem irreversible today; for example, experts predict that over the next ten years, 25 of the 26 jobs created in the United States will be in the service sector, and the total share of workers employed in it will reach 83 percent of the total workforce by 2025. If in the early 1980s the share of workers directly employed in manufacturing operations did not exceed 12 percent in the US, today it has dropped to 10 percent and continues to decline; however, there are also sharper estimates that determine this indicator at a level of less than 5 percent total number employed. Thus, in Boston, one of the centers for the development of high technologies, in 1993, 463 thousand people were employed in the service sector, while only 29 thousand were directly employed in production. At the same time, these very impressive data should not, in our opinion, serve as a basis for recognizing the new society as a “service society”.
The volume of material goods produced and consumed by society in the context of the expansion of the service economy does not decrease, but grows. Back in the 1950s, J. Fourastier noted that the production base of the modern economy remains and will remain the basis on which the development of new economic and social processes takes place, and its importance should not be underestimated. The share of industrial production in the US GNP in the first half of the 1990s fluctuated between 22.7 and 21.3 percent, having declined very slightly since 1974, and for the EU countries it was about 20 percent (from 15 percent in Greece to 30 percent in Germany). At the same time, the growth in the volume of material goods is increasingly ensured by an increase in the productivity of the workers employed in their creation. If in 1800 an American farmer spent 344 hours of labor on the production of 100 bushels of grain, and in 1900 - 147, then today it takes only three man-hours; in 1995, the average labor productivity in the manufacturing industry was five times higher than in 1950.
Thus, modern society is not characterized by an obvious decline in the share of material production and can hardly be called a "service society". We, speaking about the decrease in the role and importance of material factors, mean that an increasing share of social wealth is not the material conditions of production and labor, but knowledge and information, which become the main resource of modern production in any of its forms.
Formation modern society as a system based on the production and consumption of information and knowledge, began in the 50s. Already in the early 60s, some researchers estimated the share of the "knowledge industry" in the US gross national product in the range from 29.0 to 34.5 percent. Today this indicator is determined at the level of 60 percent. Estimates of employment in the information industries turned out to be even higher: for example, in 1967 the share of workers in the "information sector" was 53.5 percent of total employment, and in the 80s. estimates as high as 70 percent have been offered. Knowledge, as a direct productive force, is becoming the most important factor in the modern economy, and the sector that creates it turns out to be the most significant and important resource of production that supplies the economy. There is a transition from expanding the use of material resources to reducing the need for them.
Some examples illustrate this very clearly. In the first decade of the "information" era alone, from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, the gross national product of the post-industrial countries increased by 32 percent, and energy consumption by 5; in the same years, with the growth of the gross domestic product by more than 25 percent, American agriculture reduced energy consumption by 1.65 times. With a national product that has grown 2.5 times, the United States uses less ferrous metals today than it did in 1960; between 1973 and 1986, the average new American car's gasoline consumption fell from 17.8 to 8.7 liters per 100 km, and the cost of materials in the cost of microprocessors used in today's computers is less than 2 percent. As a result, over the past hundred years, the physical mass of American exports has remained virtually unchanged in annual terms, despite a twenty-fold increase in its real value. At the same time, the most high-tech products are rapidly becoming cheaper, contributing to their wide distribution in all areas of the economy: for example, from 1980 to 1995, the memory capacity of a standard personal computer increased by more than 250 times, and its price per unit of hard disk memory decreased between 1983 and 1995 by more than 1,800 times. As a result, an economy of “unlimited resources” arises, the limitlessness of which is due not to the scale of production, but to a reduction in the need for them.
The consumption of information products is constantly increasing. In 1991, US companies' spending on the acquisition of information and information technology, which reached $112 billion, exceeded the cost of acquiring fixed assets, which amounted to $107 billion; already on next year the gap between these figures widened to $25 billion. Finally, by 1996 the first figure had actually doubled, to $212 billion, while the second remained virtually unchanged. By early 1995, the American economy generated about three-quarters of the value added generated by industry through information. As the information sector of the economy develops, it becomes more and more obvious that knowledge is the most important strategic asset of any enterprise, a source of creativity and innovation, the basis contemporary values and social progress - that is, a truly unlimited resource.
Thus, the development of modern society leads not so much to the replacement of the production of material goods by the production of services, but to the displacement of the material components of the finished product by information components. The consequence of this is a decrease in the role of raw materials and labor as basic production factors, which is a prerequisite for moving away from the mass creation of reproducible goods as the basis for the well-being of society. The demassification and dematerialization of production are an objective component of the processes leading to the formation of a post-economic society.
On the other hand, over the past decades there has been another, no less important and significant process. We have in mind the decline in the role and importance of material incentives that induce a person to production.
All of the above allows us to conclude that scientific and technological progress leads to a global transformation of society. Society is entering a new phase of its development, which many sociologists define as the "information society".
Hello dear readers! In this article I would like to talk about how the development of science and technology on Earth took place. What are the development paths for this ...
The development of civilization is associated with scientific and technological progress. Separate periods of deep and rapid changes in productive forces are singled out. This process is based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force of society. Such periods are called scientific and technological revolution (NTR) .
The beginning of the modern scientific and technological revolution dates back to the middle of the 20th century, in which, as a rule, 4 main features are distinguished.
First, it's versatility. This revolution concerns all spheres of human activity and covers almost all branches of the national economy. Such concepts as television, nuclear power plant, spacecraft, jet aircraft, computer, etc. are associated with modern scientific and technological revolution.
Secondly, it is the rapid development of technology and science. The distance from a fundamental discovery to its application in practice has sharply decreased. 102 years have passed since the discovery of the principle of photography to the first photograph, and for example, for a laser, this period has been reduced to only 5 years.
Thirdly, it is a change in the human role in the production process. Requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources are increased in the process of scientific and technological revolution. Part of mental labor, of course, increases in these conditions.
Fourthly, the modern scientific and technological revolution was born during the Second World War, as a military-technical one, and in many ways continued to remain so throughout the entire period after the war.
Today, the modern scientific and technological revolution is a complex system that consists of four interacting parts: 1) the science; 2) technology and technique; 3) production; 4) management.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, science is a very complex component of knowledge. This is a large area of human activity, which employs many people around the world. The connection between production and science has especially increased. Manufacturing has become more scientific, that is, Scientific research production costs rise.
The cost of science in developed countries becomes 2 - 3% of GDP. And in developing countries, these costs are only fractions of a percent.
The development of technology and technology in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution takes place along two paths - revolutionary and evolutionary.
revolutionary path- the main one in the development of technology and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution. The essence of this path lies in the transition to a fundamentally new technology and technique. The second wave of scientific and technological revolution, which began in the 1970s, is often called the “microelectronic revolution” for a reason.
The transition to the latest technologies is also of great importance. At the level with the traditional ways of improving production, the newest directions of production are intensively developing, of which 6 main directions can be distinguished.
1. Electronization. This is the saturation of electronic computing technology in all areas of activity.
2. Integrated automation or the use of robotics, and the creation of new flexible production systems, automatic plants.
3. Restructuring of the energy sector. It is based on the conservation of energy, the use of new energy sources, and the improvement of the structure of the fuel and energy balance.
4. Production of fundamentally new materials, for example, titanium, lithium, optical fiber, beryllium, composite, ceramic materials, semiconductor.
5. Accelerated development of biotechnology.
6. Cosmization and the emergence of the aerospace industry, which contributed to the emergence of new alloys, machines, devices.
evolutionary path It is manifested in an increase in the carrying capacity of vehicles, in an increase in the capacity of the productivity of equipment and machines, as well as in the constant improvement of technology and technology.
For example, the largest offshore tanker, in the early 50s, could hold 50,000 tons of oil, and in the 70s, they began to build super tankers that could hold 500,000 tons or more.
The modern stage of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by new requirements for management. Modern humanity is going through a period of information revolution, which began with the transition from conventional (paper) to electronic (computer) information.
One of the newest science-intensive industries has become the production of various information technology. Informatics, in this situation, is of great importance. Computer science is the science of collecting, processing and using information.
Thus, the scientific and technological revolution is not in vain bears such a name. It, like any other revolution, brings all kinds of changes: in production, science and technology, it greatly helps modern humanity in development, and is already an integral part of everyday life.
Features of NTR
- Universality, inclusiveness: involvement of all branches and spheres of human activity
- Extreme acceleration of scientific and technological transformations: reduction of the time between discovery and implementation in production, constant obsolescence and updating
- Increasing requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources: the growth of knowledge intensity of production
- Military-technical revolution: improvement of types of weapons and equipment
Components of scientific and technological revolution
- Science: increasing knowledge intensity, increasing the number of researchers and research costs
- Technique/Technology: Increasing production efficiency. Functions: labor-saving, resource-saving, environmental protection
- Production:
- electronization
- complex automation
- restructuring of the energy sector
- production of new materials
- accelerated development of biotechnology
- cosmization
- Management: informatization and cybernetic approach
Scientific revolutions
The first scientific revolution of the 17th century
- Associated with names: Galileo, Kepler, Newton.
- Galileo (-): studied the problem of motion, discovered the principle of inertia, the law of free fall of bodies.
- Kepler (-): established 3 laws of planetary motion around the Sun (without explaining the causes of planetary motion), developed the theory of solar and lunar eclipses, ways of predicting them, clarified the distance between the Earth and the Sun.
- Newton (-): formulated the concepts and laws of classical mechanics, mathematically formulated the law of universal gravitation, theoretically substantiated Kepler's laws on the motion of planets around the Sun, created celestial mechanics (the law of universal gravitation was unshakable until the end of the 19th century), created differential and integral calculus as a language for mathematical description of physical reality, author of many new physical ideas (on a combination of corpuscular and wave ideas about the nature of light, etc.), developed a new paradis gmu study of nature (method of principles) - thought and experience, theory and experiment develop in unity, developed classical mechanics as a system of knowledge about the mechanical movement of bodies, mechanics became the standard of scientific theory, formulated the basic ideas, concepts, principles of the mechanical picture of the world.
- Newton's mechanical picture of the world:
The universe from atoms to man is a collection of indivisible and unchanging particles interconnected by gravitational forces, an instantaneous action of forces in empty space. Any events are predetermined by the laws of classical mechanics. The world, all bodies are built from solid, homogeneous, unchanging and indivisible corpuscles - atoms. The basis of the mechanistic picture of the world: the movement of atoms and bodies in absolute space over the course of absolute time. The properties of bodies are immutable and independent of the bodies themselves. Nature is a machine, parts of which are subject to rigid determination. Synthesis of natural science knowledge based on the reduction (reduction) of processes and phenomena to mechanical ones.
The mechanical picture of the world gave naturally scientific understanding many natural phenomena, freeing them from mythological and religious scholastic interpretations. Its disadvantage is the exclusion of evolution, space and time are not connected. Expansion of the mechanical picture of the world into new areas of research (chemistry, biology, knowledge about man and society). The concept of mechanics has become synonymous with the concept of science. However, facts were accumulating that did not agree with the mechanistic picture of the world, and by the middle of the 19th century. it has lost the status of general scientific.
The second scientific revolution 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century
- The transition from classical science, focused on the study of mechanical and physical phenomena, to a disciplined science
- Emergence of disciplinary sciences and their specific objects
- The mechanistic picture of the world ceases to be universal
- The idea of development arises (biology, geology)
- The phasing out of explicating any scientific theories in mechanistic terms
- The beginning of the emergence of the paradigm of non-classical science
- Maxwell and Boltzmann recognized the fundamental admissibility of many theoretical interpretations in physics, expressed doubts about the inviolability of the laws of thinking, their historicity.
- Boltzmann: “how to avoid that the image of a theory does not seem to be proper being?”
Third scientific revolution con. 19th century - mid 20th century
- Faraday - concepts of electromagnetic field
- Maxwell - electrodynamics, statistical physics
- Matter - both as substance and as an electromagnetic field
- Electromagnetic picture of the world, the laws of the universe - the laws of electrodynamics
- Lyell - about the slow continuous change of the earth's surface
- Lamarck - a holistic concept of the evolution of wildlife
- Schleiden, Schwann - cell theory - about the unity of the origin and development of all living things
- Mayer, Joule, Lenz - the law of conservation and transformation of energy - heat, light, electricity, magnetism, etc., pass one into another and are forms of one phenomenon, this energy does not arise from nothing and does not disappear.
- Darwin - material factors and causes of evolution - heredity and variability
- Becquerel - radioactivity
- X-ray - Rays
- Thomson - elementary particle electron
- Rutherford - planetary model of the atom
- Planck - the quantum of action and the law of radiation
- Bohr - Rutherford-Bohr quantum model of the atom
- Einstein - general theory of relativity - connection between space and time
- Broglie - all material micro-objects have both corpuscular and wave properties (quantum mechanics)
- The dependence of knowledge on the methods used by the researcher
- Expansion of the idea of the unity of nature - an attempt to build a unified theory of all interactions
- The principle of complementarity is the need to apply mutually exclusive sets of classical concepts (for example, particles and waves), only a set of mutually exclusive concepts provides comprehensive information about phenomena. This is a completely new method of thinking, dictating the need for liberation from traditional methodological restrictions.
- The emergence of non-classical natural science and the corresponding type of rationality
- Thinking does not study the object, but how the interaction of the object with the device appeared to the observer
- Scientific knowledge does not characterize reality as it is, but the reality constructed by the feelings and reason of the researcher.
- Thesis about the ambiguity of being - the absence of ideal models
- Assumption of the truth of several different theories of the same object
- The relative truth of theories and pictures of nature, the conventionality of scientific knowledge.
The American physicist Richard Feyman wrote about the relative truth and convention of scientific knowledge:
"That's why science is unreliable. As soon as you say something about a field of experience with which you have not directly come into contact, you immediately lose confidence. But we must necessarily talk about those fields that we have never seen, otherwise science will not be of any use. Therefore, if we want science to be of any use, we must speculate. In order for science not to turn into mere protocols of experiments done, we must put forward laws that extend to still unknown areas. Nothing wrong not here. Only because of this, science turns out to be unreliable, and if you thought that science is reliable, you were mistaken. "
The fourth scientific revolution of the 90s of the 20th century.
- Post-non-classical science - the term was introduced by V. S. Stepin in his book "Theoretical Knowledge"
- Objects of its study: historically developing systems (earth, universe, etc.)
