Heresy, heretical movement. Heretical currents in Rus'

Strigolniki and Judaizers.

The first voices of protest against the feudal church organization began to appear at the end of the 14th century. The heretical movement that began at that time was basically urban, based on the young Russian burghers, mainly on its handicraft part. Starting in Pskov, it migrated to Tver and Novgorod, then to Moscow and, despite all measures, continued to remain there for a century and a half, changing form and content, but retaining a tendency to fight the feudal church.

At present, there is no documentary information about the beginning of the Strigolnikov heresy, as the church called the first Russian heresy. It is known that this name was given in accordance with the craft ("cloth shearer" - cloth maker) of one of the founders of the sect. The starting point of the heresy lies in the local Pskov church relations, which hardly coexisted next to the feudal organization of the Novgorod archbishop's see. From the collision of the city church with the claims of the feudal lord, who was the Novgorod archbishop, the sect of the Strigolniks appeared.

At the beginning of the 14th century Pskov became politically independent from Novgorod, and the desire of the Pskovites to achieve the same in church terms became noticeable. Dependence was expressed in the right of the Novgorod bishop to collect duties from the Pskov clergy and call the Pskov clergy to his court. Soon a conflict arose between the bishop and the Pskovites, which was resolved by a compromise - Novgorod limited the collection of fees. However, this did not suit everyone. Then the hairdressers appeared, who rejected the existing legality, who "slandered the entire ecumenical council." The reasons for this were not hard to find. The first and most important thing was that the patriarchs, metropolitans and bishops "sell spirits" - they take a bribe for the appointment of clerics. The Novgorod opponents failed to object to this, justifying themselves only by the fact that such a fee exists everywhere and, therefore, it is not prohibited by the canons. Having drawn this conclusion, the hairdressers admitted that if bribes are taken everywhere, then nowhere can one find true priesthood; and since there is no true hierarchy, then it is not needed. Strigolniki found in Holy Scripture that the Apostle Paul commanded to teach and common man. And so, in the place of "drunken teachers who eat and drink with drunkards and take gold and silver from them," the heretics put themselves teachers over the people - "they created themselves with the head being the foot, they created themselves shepherds being sheep," as one of them puts it. accusers. And "terrible things" began: the laity tried the priests and executed them, "raptured" the priesthood upon themselves and performed baptism. Characteristic was the position taken by the heretics in relation to prayers for the dead.

These common features of the Strigolnist heresy are quite clear in their character: we have before us a movement that is not of an ascetic-dualistic character, but of a Protestant-Reformation one. Both Lutheranism and Strigolism oppose the exploitation of the local church by a foreign spiritual seigneur, i.e. Strigolism comes from here to the denial of those provisions that are a source of income for this seigneur and his clergy, the need for a professional hierarchy, the need for the maintenance of the clergy, the need for prayers for the dead.

In the person of the Judaizers, we are dealing with a complex and broad phenomenon that played an important role in the events of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Having arisen in Novgorod, the heresy, according to Joseph Volotsky, penetrated into Moscow, to the court of the prince himself, infected Metropolitan Zosima himself and spread to the monastic sketes of the Trans-Volga region. Obviously, despite Joseph's assurances that all heretics held the same views, this was not at all the case, the diversity of the social environment invaded by heresy must have entailed significant shades in ideology. However, church historians have come to the most opposite conclusions about the essence of heresy. A.S. Arkhangelsky came to the conclusion that there was no heresy, but only individuals who expressed critical opinions on various issues of dogma and church administration. At the opposite pole, E.E. Golubinsky, who declared that "the heresy of the Judaizers was nothing but complete and real Judaism, or Judaism, with a complete rejection of Christianity." Between these extremes is the opinion of Panov, who considers the heresy of the Judaizers to be a direct continuation of Strigolism, which accidentally experienced the influence of Judaism.

For a correct judgment about heresy, one has to evaluate those sources that tell us about it. There are letters from the Novgorod Archbishop Gennady with fragmentary information about heretics; "Izvestia" of Metropolitan Zosima about the Council of 1490 with the denunciation of heresy and the verdict of this Council in the case of heretics; and the work of Joseph Volotsky "Illuminator", entirely devoted to the exposure of heresy. The latter includes 16 words exposing various delusions of heretics, and as a preface gives the "Legend of the Newly Appeared Heresy", which is an essay on heresy, which tells how the heresy arose in Novgorod, how it penetrated from Novgorod to Moscow, and indicates by name the Moscow heretics. The "Legend" ends with a story about the cathedral of 1490, and in the 15th word information about the cathedral of 1504 is reported inserted into the book after its publication.

The value of the first two sources is beyond doubt: they document the existence of heresy in Novgorod and make it possible to judge the nature of this heresy. But the messages of the "Illuminator" have to be treated with great caution. In contrast to Gennady, who personally dealt with heretics in Novgorod, Joseph stayed in his monastery until 1503 and wrote about the Novgorod heretics partly on the basis of Gennady's reports, partly on the basis of other rumors that reached him and, moreover, transmitted the information received not only without any critical examination, but also added his own explanations of heresy. It was at the same time that Gennady, admitting some Jewish influence, believes that the heresy in Novgorod arose mainly under the influence of the Marcellian and Massilian heresies, Joseph found the key to heresy in the word "Jew", and with his light hand and the wrong term "Jewish" went. In the presentation of the ideology of the heretics, Joseph differs significantly from the verdict of 1490, which does not contain even half of the "heresies" about which Joseph speaks. Further, the Muscovite heretics were political opponents of Joseph, since. stood for the secularization of church property; therefore, when characterizing them, Joseph seeks, first of all, to denigrate them from the moral side, but about the ideology of heretics, he can only say that they are "some kind of fable and astrology, learn and look at the stars and build the birth and life of man, and despise the divine scripture as if it is nothing and obscene to man." Therefore, the messages of the "Illuminator" can in no way be taken as the basis of our judgment about heresy. They can only be meaningful after verification by other sources. But to characterize the views and methods of the Osiflyan party - supporters of Joseph Volotsky - "Illuminator" is, of course, of paramount value.

The appearance of heresy in Novgorod coincided with the fierce struggle of the Novgorod parties before the second campaign of Ivan III against Novgorod. This struggle from the very beginning was not alien to some religious motives. Moscow, which crushed Pskov and was ready to crush Novgorod, seemed to the boyars and its religious ideologists to be the kingdom of the Antichrist; when Novgorod falls, the Antichrist will triumph, and the end of the world will come. This expectation found support in a church document: Paschal was calculated only until 1492, which was supposed to correspond to 7000 from the creation of the world. In one collection of the 15th century. at the end of Paschalia, a postscript was made, which said "this summer at the end, appearing in the same tea, the universal triumph of your coming." The same postscript is repeated in the annals of the 15th century. and the then hierarchs operate with it in their teachings.

Criticism of icon-worship was followed by criticism of the God-manhood of Jesus Christ. Heretics considered him a prophet like Moses, but not equal to God the Father, finding that it was unthinkable "for a god to descend on earth and be born of a virgin like a man"; God is one, and not trinity, for in the story of the appearance of God to Abraham at the oak of Mamre, it is clearly stated that there were a god and two angels, and not three persons of the trinity. In other words, the heretics were strict monotheists, and denied all objects of worship that at least indirectly reminded of polytheism - icons, relics, crosses, etc. But the heretics not only did not reject the teaching of Christ, but even performed the Eucharist (the rite of communion), understanding it, however, in the Reformed spirit: bread is just bread, wine is just wine, these are only symbols, not the true body and blood of Christ.

Behind the criticism of the doctrine was the criticism of the church organization. We do not know how the heretics treated the higher church hierarchy, but it must be assumed that they rejected it, at least Gennady denounces one of the heretics, the monk Zakhar, who did not take communion himself and did not commune others on the grounds that there was no one to take communion, for everyone is put on a "bribe" - an old strigolnik motif. After this, one can believe Joseph, who assures that heretics considered monasticism contrary to the gospel and apostolic teaching, for neither Jesus nor the apostles were monks, and even more than that, they explained the origin of the “image of monasticism” by the machinations of the devil: Pachomius was not at all the founder of monasticism. an angel, but a demon in dark clothes, which monks wear, and not in light clothes, like angels. Naturally, the heretics then expressed doubts about the existence of afterlife and rejected the main function of prayer books - prayers for the dead: "And what is the kingdom of heaven, and what is the second coming, and what is the resurrection of the dead? There is nothing of the kind, he died, then he died, and he was in that place ..."

It is quite understandable that the Novgorod heretics, with such views on the feudal church and on monasticism, easily acquired "weakness" and even patronage from the Muscovite prince. Having ended Novgorod's independence in 1478, Ivan III personally proved to the Novgorod boyars and the princes of the Novgorod church that they were right in their own way, considering Moscow to be the kingdom of the Antichrist.

Thus, the seemingly unnatural alliance of the “believing” Moscow prince with the “Judaic” heretics finds a completely clear explanation for itself: the allies had the same social enemy. But the matter took a curious turn in Moscow, where the heresy spread after the fall of Novgorod and where it received a new form of connection with the struggle of the Moscow parties that flared up around the question of monastic lands.

69. All-Russian chronicle codes.

chronicle monuments that set out the history of individual regions and principalities from an all-Russian point of view and included annals of various feudal centers of medieval Rus'

Annals in Russia, historical works of the 11th-17th centuries, in which the narration was conducted over the years. The story about the events of each year in L. usually began with the words: “in the summer” - hence the name - chronicle. The words "chronicle" and "chronicler" are equivalent, but the compiler of such a work could also be called a chronicler. L. - the most important historical sources, the most significant monuments of social thought and culture of ancient Rus'.

New phenomena in chronicle writing are noted in the 15th century, when Russian state centered in Moscow. The policy of the Moscow Grand Dukes was reflected in the all-Russian annals. The Trinity Chronicle of the beginning of the 15th century gives an idea of ​​the first Moscow all-Russian collection. (disappeared in the Moscow fire of 1812) and the Simeon Chronicle in the list of the 16th century. . Troitskaya L. ends in 1409. A variety of sources were used to compile it: Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, and others. The origin and political orientation of this L. are emphasized by the predominance of Moscow news and a generally favorable assessment of the activities of Moscow princes and metropolitans. The all-Russian chronicle compiled in Smolensk at the end of the 15th century was the so-called Chronicle of Abraham; another code is the Suzdal Chronicle (end of the 15th century).

An annalistic code based on the rich Novgorodian writing, the Sophia Timepiece, appeared in Novgorod. A large chronicle code appeared in Moscow in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Especially known is the Resurrection Chronicle, ending in 1541 (the compilation of the main part of the L. refers to 1534-37). It includes many official records. The same official records were included in the extensive Lviv Chronicle, which included “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich”, until 1560. At the court of Ivan the Terrible in the 40-60s. 16th century the Front Chronicle Code was created, i.e., the chronicle, including drawings corresponding to the text. The text of the front set is based on an earlier one - the Nikon Chronicle, which was a huge compilation of various chronicle news, stories, lives, etc. In the 16th century. chronicle writing continued to develop not only in Moscow, but also in other cities. The best-known Vologda-Perm chronicle was also written in Novgorod and Pskov, in the Pechersk Monastery near Pskov. In the 16th century new types of historical narrative appeared, already departing from the annalistic form, - “The Power Book of the Royal Genealogy” and “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”

V. N. Tatishchev and M. M. Shcherbatov laid the foundation for the study of L. A. L. Shletser devoted forty years to the study of The Tale of Bygone Years, clearing the annals of errors and typos, explaining the “dark” places. P. M. Stroev considered chronicles as collections or "codes" of previous material. Using the methodology of Schlozer and Stroev, M. P. Pogodin and I. I. Sreznevsky enriched science with many facts that facilitated the study of the history of Russian L.

I. D. Belyaev classified L. into state, family, monastic and chronicle collections and pointed out that the position of the chronicler was determined by his territorial and estate position. The study of the history of chronicle writing is one of the most difficult sections of source studies and philological science. The methods of studying the history of chronicle writing, applied by Shakhmatov, formed the basis of the modern one.

Question 70

Chet-minei or Menaion chetii - the same as the chet (that is, intended for reading, and not for worship) books of the lives of the saints Orthodox Church, and these narratives are set out in the order of the months and days of each month, hence the name of their "menaion" (Greek μηνιαίος "monthly, one-month, lasting month"). There are five works of this kind:

4) CHETI-MENEI

CHETI-MENEI (Minei-Cheti) - (from the Greek μηνιαίος - monthly and Old Slavonic cheti - readings) - collections of original and translated monuments, hagiographic and rhetorical church teaching words and other works of the church fathers and intended in the Middle Ages for daily "spiritual" reading within a month.

The genre of "Menaion" - Orthodox liturgical books for monthly use - began to take shape in Byzantium no earlier than the 9th century. From the 10th century there were already two types of menaias: (1) "service", intended for the servants of the clergy, and (2) "fours", addressed not only to them, but also to a wider circle of readers of spiritual literature. Among the compilers of Chetiy Menaion, the most famous is Simon Logofet or Metaphrast (that is, the "Reteller", 940-976) - a Byzantine church writer who re-arranged the lives of the saints in a popular form. Collections compiled by Simon Logofet became widespread among the southern and eastern Slavs at the beginning of the 11th century.

The oldest lists Chetiy-Meney was included in the so-called Suprasl manuscript (beginning of the 11th century) and the Assumption collection (beginning of the 12th century). The elevated style of presentation of Simon Logofet, which was already reflected in these first translated texts, became a model for the authors of the ancient Russian compilers of later educational collections.

In the first half of the 16th century, in the conditions of the strengthening of the all-Russian statehood and the emergence of prerequisites for the creation of an all-Russian cult of saints (church councils of 1547 and 1549), the texts of educational books and collections like the Menaion proved to be especially ideologically in demand. In those years Metropolitan Macarius of Novgorod (1528–1563) undertook a great deal of work on collecting “the holy books that are found in the Russian land”. It is to him that the merit belongs in compiling a consolidated version of the Chetii-Meney - the so-called Great Menaion-Chetiy, which now bears his name.

The Great Menaion-Cheti are 12 huge books (according to the number of months of the year) that regulated the annual circle of reading for every day. A wide range of Russian writers, translators, scribes and scribes were involved in the fulfillment of the Metropolitan's plan, starting with well-known publicists and hagiographers, such as, for example, Zinovy ​​Otensky, Lev the Philologist, Vasily Mikhailovich Tuchkov, Yermolai-Erasmus, clerk Dmitry Gerasimov, presbyter Ilya, Pskov priest-hagiographer Vasily-Varlaam to the unknown. Compiling and editing work took Macarius, his assistants and "many different scribes" over 25 years. The scribes processed the materials of all Novgorod, Pskov and a number of local church and monastery libraries subject to the metropolitan. The collection of books on the cities and monasteries of Rus' contributed to the formation of the future Patriarchal (Synodal) Library, which was later located in Moscow.

Modern archivists are aware of three "clean" 12-volume book collections of the Great Menaion-Chetia, attributed to Metropolitan Macarius and named after the places of their original storage: Sophia, Tsarsky and Assumption (now stored in the Department of Manuscripts of the Russian State Historical Museum).

The external design of the books is sustained in the solemn and eloquent style of "Old Russian monumentalism". The dimensions of each 12-volume book collection correspond to the name "great", since they include from 1500 to 2000 sheets of a standard format called the "Alexandrian sheet" (roughly corresponds to a modern sheet of A4 printing paper). The style of the collections is sophisticated and ornate. The splendor and "beautifulness" of the verbal design of the texts arranged for "soulful reading" had to correspond to the increased political grandeur of the Moscow Orthodox kingdom, and the external monumentality - to the grandiosity of the idea of ​​​​Moscow as the heir to Byzantium in world history, i.e. "Third Rome".

The composition of the Great Menaion-Chetia included lives and laudatory words to the saints, articles from numerous religious and didactic works, Russian and translated - Solemnists, Prologues, Trebniks, compositions of the "fathers of the church" - Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian. Some collections were included in the composition of Macarius as a whole - these are Izmaragd, Chrysostom, Zlatostruy, Margaret, Golden Chain. The History of the Jewish War by Josephus Flavius, the Cosmography of Cosmas Indikoshgov, the Journey of Abbot Daniel and other most valuable monuments were also included without cuts in the Great Menaia-Chetias. ancient Russian literature whose originals are no longer extant. For the 16th century, the Great Menaion-Cheti was the most complete collection of religious texts, a kind of "spiritual encyclopedia of the 16th century."

In the 17th century The Great Menaion-Cheti were the basis of new collections - the Menaia of the Chetii Chudovskys (1600), the Menaia of German Tulupov (1627–1632) and the Menaia of I.I. - the basis of the Menaia of the Fourth Demetrius of Rostov (1651-1709), which are distinguished by a figurative, expressive language, almost close to modern. Became a favorite pious reading for literate Christians, Cheti-Minei only in the 18th century. withstood 10 reprints and reprinted many times in extracts. The Cheti-Minei were especially popular among the Old Believers (extracts from them are often found in the composition of the Old Believer collections - Tsvetnikov).

Hagiography

Epiphanius the Wise. Epiphany was born in Rostov in the first half of the 14th century.

In the author's introduction to the Life of Metropolitan Peter, Cyprian, as noted above, says that the life should serve as an adornment for the saint. Epiphanius' "Life of Stephen of Perm" can serve as an example of life-decoration, verbal praise to the saint.

In this work, the views of Epiphanius on the tasks of the literary work of the hagiographer were most fully and clearly reflected. Ordinary words are unable to express the greatness of the deeds of the ascetics for the glory of Christ, but the author of the story about the saint - earth man. And so, calling on God for help, relying on the patronage of the saint he praises, the hagiographer strives to use the usual means of language in such a way that the reader has an idea of ​​the saint as a person of a completely different spiritual type than other people. Therefore, linguistic pretentiousness is not an end in itself, but a means by which the author can adequately glorify the hero of his story.

The hagiographer at the beginning of his life (which is especially characteristic of monuments of the panegyric style) speaks of his writing abilities with an extreme degree of self-abasement. Here is what Epiphanius writes in one of the tirades of this kind: “I am rude in mind and ignorant in word, having a bad mind and craft, I have not been in Athens from my youth, and I have not learned from their philosophers either rhetorical weaving or Vityan verbs, I didn’t acquire Plato’s or Arestothel conversations (I didn’t master it), I didn’t have any skills, neither philosophy, nor cunning, but simply filled with bewilderment. The author's confessions in their ignorance, ignorance, in their simplicity contradict the rest of the text of the work, in which his scholarship, erudition and ability to master rhetorical techniques are fully manifested. This is a skillful literary device, all directed towards the same goal - to glorify, exalt the saint. If the author of the life, shining in his work with both learning and rhetorical art, does not get tired of repeating his insignificance, then the reader and listener of the life should have felt especially insignificant before the greatness of the saint. In addition, the author's confessions about his ignorance and literary helplessness, contradicting the actual text written by this same author, should have created the impression that everything written is some kind of divine revelation, an influx from above.

The second work of Epiphanius the Wise - "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh" - is more narrative in nature than the "Life of Stephen of Perm", stylistically it is much simpler, more saturated with factual material. A number of episodes of the "Life of Sergius" have a peculiar lyrical connotation (a story about the childhood of the lad Bartholomew - the future Sergius, an episode that tells about the request of Sergius's parents not to go to the monastery until their death, so that there would be someone to help them in old age, etc.) .

If in the "Life of Stephen of Perm" Epiphany showed himself to be a virtuoso stylist, then in the "Life of Sergius" he appeared, moreover, as a master of storytelling. "The Life of Sergius" was very popular with medieval readers and has come down to us in a large number of lists.

Pachomius Logothete. In the works of Epiphanius the Wise, the expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its creative development. In the person of the third representative of this style in hagiography, Pachomius Logothetes, he found a master who gave it an official church-religious character. The lives written by Pachomius became formal models for all subsequent official hagiography.

An alien from Serbia, Pahomy Logofet began his literary career in the 1930s. 15th century in Novgorod, under the Archbishop of Novgorod Euphemia II. In the future, he visited Moscow, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Belozersky Monastery, and again returned to Novgorod. Pachomiy died, apparently, in the 80s. 15th century Peru Pachomius owns several original lives, of which the best is “The Life of Cyril Belozersky”. In addition to the lives, he wrote a number of laudatory words and services to the saints. The main activity of Pachomius as a hagiographer was to rework the hagiographies that already existed in order to make these hagiographies more rhetorical, more in line with genre canons.

As V. O. Klyuchevsky notes, Pakhomiy Logofet “firmly established constant, monotonous methods for describing the life of the saint and for glorifying him in the church, and gave Russian hagiobiography many examples of that even, somewhat cold and monotonous style, which was easy to imitate with the most limited degree of erudition » .

QUESTION 71.

D omostroy is a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. "Domostroy" arose in the 15th century during the Novgorod Republic in Veliky Novgorod. According to the researchers, the text of "Domostroy" appeared as a result of a long collective work based on the literary sources that existed at the time of writing. In the middle of the 16th century, Domostroy was rewritten by the confessor and associate of Ivan the Terrible, Archpriest Sylvester, as an edification to the young tsar. However, some researchers (D. P. Golokhvastov, A. V. Mikhailov, A. I. Sobolevsky and others) consider Sylvester the author of Domostroy. The updated version of Domostroy was compiled by the hieromonk of the Moscow Chudov Monastery, and later by the abbot - Karion in the 17th century. In the Sylvester version, "Domostroy" consists of a preface, 67 chapters and "Message and punishment from father to son"

SIGNIFICANCE: In addition to the religious, instructive and instructive parts, "Domostroy" contains very important information about the social structure with many details about the life and everyday life of the boyar and merchant classes in Rus'. Therefore, it is a treasure trove for researchers of that time. This book was taken as a basis in matters of creating a family and housekeeping. Housekeeping Encyclopedia ancient Rus' Domostroy. In addition to advice and recommendations, it presented the rules for conducting ritual ceremonies. Weddings, festivities, and daily pastimes were to be consistent with this book.

“Journey Beyond Three Seas” (“Journey Beyond Three Seas”) is a literary monument in the form of travel notes (the genre of journey) made by a merchant from Tver, Afanasy Nikitin, during his journey to the Indian state of Bahmani in 1468-1474 (dated by L.S. Semyonov, earlier I. I. Sreznevsky dated 1466-1472).

Nikitin's essay was the first Russian work to accurately describe a trading and non-religious journey. The author visited the Caucasus, Persia, India and Crimea. However, most of the notes were devoted to India: its political structure, trade, agriculture, customs and traditions. The work is full of lyrical digressions and autobiographical episodes.

In 1458, presumably the merchant Afanasy Nikitin set off from his native Tver to the Shirvan land (on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan). He has with him travel letters from the Grand Duke of Tver Mikhail Borisovich and from the Archbishop of Tver Gennady. There are also merchants with him - in total they go on two ships. They move along the Volga, past the Klyazma Monastery, pass Uglich and reach Kostroma, which was in the possession of Ivan III. His viceroy lets Athanasius go further.
Vasily Panin, the Grand Duke's ambassador to Shirvan, whom Athanasius wanted to join, had already passed down the Volga. Nikitin has been waiting for two weeks for Hasan-bek, the ambassador of the Tatar Shirvanshah. He rides with gyrfalcons "from the Grand Duke Ivan, and he had ninety gyrfalcons." Together with the ambassador, they move on.
On the way, Athanasius makes notes about his journey beyond the three seas: “the first sea is Derbent (Caspian), Daria Khvalisskaya; the second sea is Indian, Darya Gundustanskaya; the third Black Sea, Daria Stambulskaya ”(Daria no-Persian - sea).
Kazan passed without obstacles. Ordu, Uslan, Saray and Berenzan passed safely. The merchants are warned that the Tatars are waiting for the caravan. Hasan-bek gives gifts to informants so that they can guide them through a safe path. Wrong gifts were taken, but the news of their approach was given. The Tatars overtook them in Bogun (on the shallows at the mouth of the Volga). There were casualties on both sides in the shootout. The smaller ship, on which Athanasius' luggage was also, was plundered. A large ship reached the sea and ran aground. And he, too, was plundered and four Russians were taken prisoner. The rest were released "headless into the sea." And they went crying... When the travelers went ashore, and then they were taken prisoner.
In Derbent, Athanasius asks for help from Vasily Panin, who safely reached the Caspian Sea, and Hasan-bek, so that they intercede for the people captured and return the goods. After much trouble, people are released, but nothing else is returned. It was believed that what came from the sea is the property of the owner of the coast. And they parted ways.
Others remained in Shamakhi, others went to work in Baku. Athanasius, on his own, goes to Derbent, then to Baku, "where the fire burns unquenchable", from Baku across the sea - to Chenokur. Here he lives for half a year, a month in Sari, a month in Amal, about Ray, he says that the descendants of Muhammad were killed here, from whose curse seventy cities were destroyed. He lives in Kashan for a month, a month in Ezda, where "livestock is fed with dates." He does not name many cities, because "there are many more large cities." By sea he gets to Hormuz on the island, where “the sea steps on it every day twice” (for the first time he sees the ebb and flow), and the heat of the sun can burn a person. A month later, “after Easter on the day of the Rainbow,” he sets off on a tava (an Indian ship without an upper deck) “with horses across the Indian Sea.” They reach Kombey, “where paint and varnish are born” (the main export products, except for spices and fabrics), and then go to Chaul.
Athanasius has a keen interest in everything related to trade. He studies the state of the market and is annoyed that they lied to him: "they said that there is a lot of our goods, but there is nothing for our land: all the goods are white for the Besermen land, pepper, and paint." Athanasius brought a stallion "to the Indian land", for which he paid a hundred rubles. In Junnar, the khan takes away the stallion from Athanasius, having learned that the merchant is not a Muslim, but a Rusyn. Khan promises to return the stallion and give a thousand gold coins in addition if Athanasius converts to the Muslim faith. And he appointed a deadline: four days for the Day of the Savior, for the Dormition Fast. But on the eve of Spasov Day, the treasurer Mukhamed, a Khorasanian, arrived (his identity has not yet been established). He stood up for the Russian merchant. The stallion was returned to Nikitin. Nikitin believes that "the Lord's miracle happened on Spasov Day", "The Lord God took pity ... did not leave me, a sinner, with his mercy."
In Bidar, he is again interested in goods - “horses, damask (fabric), silk and any other goods and black slaves are sold at the market, but there is no other goods here. The goods are all from Gundustan, and only vegetables are edible, and there is no goods here for the Russian land ”...
Nikitin vividly describes the manners and customs of the peoples living in India.
“And here is the Indian country, and ordinary people go naked, but their heads are not covered, and their breasts are bare, and their hair is braided in one braid, and everyone walks around with belly fat, and children are born every year, and they have many children. Of the common people, men and women are all naked and all black. Wherever I go, there are many people behind me - they marvel white man».
Everything is accessible to the curiosity of a Russian traveler: agriculture, the state of the army, and the method of warfare: “The battle is being fought more and more on elephants, themselves in armor and horses. Big forged swords are tied to the elephants' heads and tusks... yes, they dress the elephants in damask armor, and turrets are made on the elephants, and in those turrets there are twelve people in armor, and all with cannons, but with arrows.
Athanasius is especially interested in questions of faith. He conspires with the Hindus to go to Par-wat - "that is their Jerusalem, the same as Mecca for the besermen." He marvels that there are seventy-four faiths in India, “and people of different faiths do not drink, eat, marry…” with each other.
Athanasius grieves that he has lost his Russian church calendar, the sacred books were lost during the looting of the ship. “I do not observe Christian holidays - neither Easter nor the Nativity of Christ, I do not fast on Wednesdays and Fridays. And living among the non-believers, I pray to God that he save me ... "

72.Ancient Moscow

Early development of the Kremlin

According to the studies of M.G. Rabinovich, N.N. Voronin, N.S. Shelyapina, V.I. Fedorov and others, Borovitsky Hill was inhabited by Slavs already in the 11th century. Wooden pavements dated 1080-1090 have been found.

On the cape of Borovitsky Hill in the XII century there was a settlement of Vyatichi. Presumably, the first wooden church of the Nativity of John the Baptist was built there. At the same time, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe current Cathedral Square, on the territory of the more ancient Dyakovo settlement, there was a settlement that included a wooden church and a princely cemetery. According to the chronicle, in 1156 the wooden walls of the Kremlin were erected, covering both settlements.

At the same time, according to T.D. Panova, deposits of a residential layer earlier than the middle of the 12th century were not found on the territory of Borovitsky Hill.

In any case, the Moscow Kremlin was founded in the middle of the 11th century on a high cape formed at the confluence of the Neglinnaya with the Moscow River. This arrangement is typical for populated areas founded in that turbulent time. Hence the famous triangular shape of the Moscow Kremlin.

Ancient fortifications consisted of a moat, a sandy rampart and a wooden vault structure. The fortress wall was reinforced with hook poles, which prevented the logs from sliding down the steep slope. The fortifications were repeatedly renovated.

The purpose of this section involves the study of only a separate period in the development of heretical movements, namely the developed Middle Ages. These include the heresies of the 14th-16th centuries, the Taborites, the Apostolic Brethren, the Lollards, and the Anabaptists.

Also attention should be paid to the Albigensian and, in turn, the Cathar heresies, which have their source in the Albigensian movement. These heresies (although they belong to the heresies of the early Middle Ages) are relevant for this work, because. scattered remnants of the sect existed until the end of the 14th century.

The Christian sect of the Albigensians became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries. in Western Europe. It is an ascetic religious movement.

Adherents of the sect were called Albigenses (after the city of Albi, the center of the movement), as well as Cathars (Greek katharos, “pure”) from the name of the early Manichaean sect, whose members sought to purify themselves - to free themselves from corporality and materiality. They asserted the coexistence of two fundamental principles - a good deity (God of the New Testament), who created spirit and light, and an evil deity (God of the Old Testament), who created matter and darkness. Denying the power of church and state, they appealed to the Holy Scriptures, mainly to the New Testament, because the Old Law (Old Testament) was considered as a whole as the work of the devil. Oaths, participation in wars, and the death penalty were forbidden.

Along with the conciliar decrees, the wave of Albigensianism was helped to restrain a general moral revival under the influence of such preachers as Saints Peter Nolasco and Bernard of Clairvaux, who fought one of the main reasons for the growth of the popularity of Albigensianism - the debauchery of the clergy and people. To combat ignorance - the source of heresy, St. Dominic founded in 1216 the Order of Preachers (Dominicans), whose members were called upon to instruct believers in Christian doctrine.

The last and bloodiest stage in the history of the Cathars is a series of battles (1209-1228), often referred to as the Albigensian Wars or the Albigensian Crusades. Particularly fierce were the battles of Beziers, Carcassonne, Lavor and Muret; the troops were led by the Count of Toulouse (from the side of the sectarians) and Simon da Montfort (from the side of the crusaders). Even before that, in 1208, Pope Innocent III called for a crusade after the sectarians killed the papal legate. According to the peace treaty of 1229 in Meaux (Treaty of Paris), most of the territory of the Albigensians passed to the king of France.

The Albigensians rejected the institution of marriage as such and childbearing. At the same time, cohabitation was seen as a lesser evil compared to marriage; the departure of a husband or wife was considered worthy of praise.

Following their tradition of dualism, the Albigensians encouraged liberation from the body, in particular through suicide.

So, the teaching of the Albigensians was akin to Manichaeism. They recognized the presence in the world of two parity principles: light - spiritual and dark, with which they associated everything material. God the Creator was considered by them to be an evil principle, since it is from Him that matter comes, which is the source of evil and the "dungeon" of the spirit. Therefore, the Church, glorifying the "evil" God, they considered dark force, denied the authority of the church and fought with it in every possible way. Only Holy Scripture had authority and weight.

One of the first representatives of the heresy of this period was a professor at Oxford University, John Wycliffe, who spoke at the end of the 14th century. against the dependence of the English church on the papal curia and the interference of the church in the affairs of the state. Wycliffe condemned church hierarchy and church wealth, arguing that they were contrary to Scripture. There are three periods in Wycliffe's life:

• 1) until 1373 - academic;
• 2) 1374-1378 - political;
• 3) 1379-1384 - heretical.

The academic period is characterized by Wycliffe's education at Oxford University. He is pursuing a master's degree in theology.

During the political period, Wycliffe was charged with defending the anti-clerical course of the king's son, Edward, Prince of Wales.

The heretical period is of the greatest value for us in the framework of this study.

In 1376 Wycliffe was called to London by the brother of the Prince of Wales, John of Ghent, to preach against episcopalism and other criticisms. The preacher coped with the assignment so successfully that a collection of his theological opinions was sent to Rome for study, and Wycliffe himself was summoned for interrogation by the highest English hierarchs in the Cathedral of St. Paul. The church, we note, is tirelessly fighting Wycliffe, but he has the protection of the university authorities and his friends at court.

In response to church accusations, Wycliffe began to criticize Catholic practice and teaching. During this period, he encouraged his followers to undertake the translation of the Bible into English.

It was the views of J. Wycliffe that served as the basis and basis for the formation of the ideas of the religious movement of the Lollards.

Now consider the main ideas of the sect and their relationship to the church.

Lollards first appeared in Antwerp around 1300. They appeared in England from the beginning of the 1360s. The intensification of social contradictions in the second half of the 14th century contributed to the activation of the Lollards. Speaking on the streets of villages and market squares, the Lollards, following J. Wycliffe, rejected the privileges catholic church and demanded the secularization of her property. At the same time, the Lollards greatly increased the social impact of their sermons. They sharply criticized the injustice of the feudal system, demanded the abolition of corvée, tithes and taxes, and the equalization of estates. Although the Lollards did not issue a direct call for insurrection, their sermons helped the populace formulate concrete social demands.

The role of this peasant-plebeian movement in the ideological preparation of the uprising of 1381 by Wat Tyler was great, and J. Ball became one of its leaders. After the suppression of the uprising, the persecution of the Lollards intensified; on the basis of statute 1401 on the burning of heretics, their executions began. Many members of the movement were forced to move to the continent and to Scotland. In England itself, adherents of this movement survived until the beginning of the 16th century, contributing to the preparation of the English Reformation.

In general, we can safely say that the Lollards did not deny the authority of the church. They only sought to simplify its decoration and demanded the secularization of church lands and other property. The main requirements of the Lollards are the transfer of land to peasant communities and the abolition of serfdom. The teachings of the Lollards were directed against the feudal system as a whole.

As early as the mid-1380s, the writings of the English reformer John Wyclif began to spread in Bohemia. Jan Hus also fell under the influence of Wyclif's ideas. During the Great Western Schism (schism) in the Roman Catholic Church, Hus was among those who remained neutral towards the opposing sides.

While preaching in the Bethlehem chapel, Hus expressed an opinion that differed from the official church dogma. Listed below are his views on some of the issues.

You cannot charge for ordinances and sell Church positions. It is enough for a priest to charge a small fee from the rich in order to satisfy his basic necessities of life.

You can’t blindly obey the church, but you need to think for yourself, using the words from the Holy Scriptures: “If the blind lead the blind, both will fall into the pit.”

Authority that violates the commandments of God cannot be recognized by Him.

Every Christian must seek the truth, even at the risk of well-being, peace and life.

To spread his teachings, Hus not only preached from the pulpit: he also ordered the walls of the Bethlehem chapel to be painted with edifying scenes, composed several songs that became popular, and carried out a reform of Czech spelling that made books more understandable to the common people.

In order to trace the development of pre-reformation views and ideas in the Czech Republic, let us dwell on some facts of the biography of Jan Hus (later the ideologist of the Czech Reformation) and the historical events that took place during that period.

From 1401, Hus read sermons in the church of St. Michael, and in 1402 Hus was appointed rector and preacher of a private Bethlehem chapel in the old part of Prague, where he was mainly engaged in reading sermons in Czech, which gathered up to three thousand people. In these sermons, Hus not only often touched everyday life(which was unusual at that time), but also openly criticized the clergy, feudal lords and burghers. Although he criticized the church, he considered himself a faithful member of it, revealing the shortcomings of people and serving for the good of the church.

In 1411, Archbishop Zbinek directly accused Hus of heresy. This accusation cast a shadow over the university and King Wenceslas IV, who supported Hus. Wenceslas called Zbinek's statement a slander and ordered the confiscation of the possessions of those priests who spread this "slander". Zbinek fled to Hungary.

In 1412, antipope John XXIII began selling indulgences, as he wanted to organize a campaign against another antipope, Alexander V. Hus opposed both indulgences and the right of hierarchs christian church raise a sword against their enemies. John XXIII placed a curse and interdict on Hus. In order not to subject the whole of Prague to interdict, Hus left for South Bohemia, where the gentry did not obey the decisions of the pope, where he continued to openly criticize church and secular authorities.

In 1414, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, which had the goal of uniting the Roman Catholic Church and ending the Great Western Schism, which by that time had already led to tripartism. Moreover, Emperor Sigismund promised Hus personal safety. However, when Hus arrived at Konstanz and received a safe-conduct, it turned out that Sigismund had given him the usual travel document. In the presence of Pope (later recognized as antipope) John XXIII and members of the Council, Hus was charged with heresy and organizing the expulsion of Germans from Prague University. Jan Hus arrived in Konstanz in November 1414, and in December he was arrested and imprisoned in one of the rooms of the palace. When some of Hus's friends accused the Council of violating the law and the imperial oath of Hus's safety, the pope replied that he had not personally promised anything to anyone and was not bound by the promise the emperor had made. When Emperor Sigismund was reminded of his promise, he refused to intervene and defend Hus. This brought him a lot of trouble later, when in 1419 he became king of Bohemia and was involved in the devastating Hussite wars. At first, Gus refused to speak during interrogations, and in order for him to start talking, a death sentence was read to him, which could be immediately carried out if Gus did not defend himself. Soon John XXIII fled from Constance, as the council demanded his resignation. This further worsened the situation of Hus, who had previously been held relatively honorably as a prisoner of the pope, and now was betrayed by the Archbishop of Constance, who put him on bread and water.

• On May 8, 1415, the Moravian gentry sent a petition to Sigismund demanding that Hus be released and give him the floor at the cathedral. On May 12, the same protest was expressed by the Sejm of Bohemia and Moravia, and later by the Czech and Polish nobility, who were in Constanta. To satisfy them, Sigismund organized a hearing of Hus's case at the council, which took place from 5 to 8 June. After the death sentence was passed on Hus, Sigismund and the archbishops came to Hus many times asking him to renounce his beliefs, but he did not.
• On July 1, Jan Hus sent a message to the cathedral, in which he finally refused to renounce his convictions. On July 6, 1415, Jan Hus, who refused to renounce his "delusions", was burned at the stake by the verdict of the cathedral.

The death of Hus became one of the reasons for the Hussite wars waged by his supporters (the Hussites) against the Habsburgs and their supporters. There is a split in the Hussite movement on the basis of a discrepancy between the main ideas and further goals: the radical Hussites ("Taborites") demanded religious reform; moderate Hussites ("chalices") went over to the Catholics.

In order to understand the differences in the views of the two branches of the Hussite movement, let us consider the main provisions of their ideologies.

The Taborites were representatives of the revolutionary anti-feudal wing of the Hussite revolutionary movement. Diverse social elements belonged to the “Tabor community” (hence the name - Taborites) - broad sections of the peasantry, the urban poor, the lower clergy, artisans, and part of the petty nobility.

The defining factor in Taborism (especially in the first period of the movement) was the revolutionary anti-feudal peasant-plebeian ideology, which was based on the chiliastic doctrine of the "kingdom of God on earth" - the "kingdom" of universal equality and social justice.

The left wing was made up of the Pikarts, whose speeches met with the opposition of the moderate Taborites, who expressed the interests mainly of the prosperous peasantry and wealthy townspeople. Despite disagreements, the Taborites remained the main military force of the rebellious Czech Republic.

The Taborites created a field army, which was guided by the combat regulations of J. Zizka, developed advanced military tactics for that time, which provided for maneuverability, the use of combat carts and artillery. The Taborite army (led by Mikulash from Gusi, Zizka, Prokop the Great) defeated 5 crusades organized by the reaction against the Hussites. Together with the “orphans” (as the troops under his direct command called themselves after the death of Zizka), the Taborites made a series of campaigns outside the Czech Republic.

The ideal of the Taborites was a democratic republic. They denied any hierarchy, both spiritual and secular. The basis of their social organization was the community, and they strictly distinguished military and family communities; the duty of the first was the exclusive occupation of military affairs, the second - crafts, agriculture and the delivery of everything necessary for the war.

The Taborites sought to destroy the domination of the Germans and to establish the complete independence and independence of the Czech element. The lower class of the Czech people, the peasants, petty philistines, who made up the main contingent of the Taborites, were saturated with hatred for the Catholic clergy, who, preaching mercy and love for one's neighbor, exploited this "neighbor" mercilessly.

The clergy lived in luxury and wealth, and the people were heavily taxed. The Archbishopric of Prague, for example, owned up to 900 villages and many towns, some of which were equal in size and wealth to royal towns. The privileges of the clergy reached such proportions that even the kings thought of limiting them.

It is not surprising that at the first call from the leaders of the radical Taborites, the masses of the people moved to Mount Tabor - the main stronghold of the Taborites.

No threats from the authorities and gentlemen could hold back this movement. Many abandoned their property or sold it for next to nothing, burned their houses, and severed social and family ties.

The oppressed people found solace in the new teaching based solely on the Holy Scriptures. He was told in his native language about evangelical simplicity and love, about equality, about brotherhood. Religion in this form ceased to be an incomprehensible abstract teaching for the people, but became a real embodiment of divine love and mercy.

But, the existing contradictions of the Taborites with the burgher-knight camp (the so-called cuppers) led to an open war between them. In a number of battles (1423, 1424) the bowls were defeated. On May 30, 1434, the Taborite army was defeated by the combined forces of the Chashniks and the feudal Catholic camp in the battle of Lipany; Separate detachments of the Taborites continued to fight until 1437, when their last fortress of Zion fell.

As for the attitude of the Taborites to the Catholic Church, we can conclude that only the Holy Scriptures served as authority for them. Moderate Taborites as a whole did not deny the authority of the church, rather treated it with disdain, demanding only its reduction in price, the abolition of church sacraments, and a magnificent Catholic cult.

The more radical wing was negative towards the Catholic Church. They denied all Christian shrines and rituals.

Let us now consider the ideas of the Chashniks' movement opposing the Taborites. Chashniki or, as they were also called, Calixtins, were representatives of the moderate wing in the Hussite revolutionary movement of the 1st half of the 13th century. in the Czech Republic.

The program of the cup owners reflected the interests of the middle strata of the urban population, small and part of the large Czech feudal lords; formulated in the Prague Articles of 1420. Chashniki demanded the right to receive communion of all believers (both laity and clergy) “under both kinds”, not only bread, but also wine (the last in the Catholic Church? The privilege of the clergy), sought to eliminate the dominance of German feudal lords and the German urban patriciate, sought the secularization of church lands, freedom of preaching in the spirit of Gusism.

So, let us note that the cup-bearers did not oppose the very institution of the Catholic Church, but strove for a change in the rites. In general, their goals were rather liberal in nature.

It is also important to note such a Protestant trend as Anabaptism, which separated during the Reformation from the main currents of Protestantism.

The beginning of Anabaptism dates back to 1525, when a small group of believers in Zurich, under the leadership of Konrad Grebel, departed from the followers of Zwingli. In the communities they founded, they adhered to the apostolic rules: they were headed by presbyters, they adhered to the principles of non-resistance to evil, the community of property, and they denounced sinning brothers. The plans of the reformers to conquer the cantons for Protestantism through gradual political steps taken by the magistrates were not recognized by the Anabaptists; they offered to create free churches for those who heard the good news, believed and were baptized. Severely persecuted by ecclesiastical and secular authorities, these, as they were called, Swiss brothers found a response from ordinary people in German-speaking countries.

The Anabaptists were re-baptizers who created voluntary religious communities on the basis of zealous observance of the New Testament institutions. The social base of Anabaptism was the urban plebeians, the peasantry, and the radical layers of the burghers. The diversity of the social composition predetermined the heterogeneity of the socio-political and religious-dogmatic aspirations of the Anabaptist movement.

Common in the system of their views was: the denial of the baptism of children and the requirement of a second baptism (at a conscious age) upon entry into the Anabaptist communities; denial of any church organization and hierarchy, icons, sacraments; denial of the need for any spiritual and secular authorities, refusal to pay taxes, perform military service, and hold public office; condemnation of wealth and social inequality and a call for the introduction of community property; belief in the establishment of the thousand-year "Kingdom of Christ" on earth (chiliasm) as a system of social justice, etc.

At first, Anabaptist leaders and major groups rejected enthusiastic prophecy and violence, as well as contemporary prayers and creeds supported by centuries of tradition.

The Anabaptists are real rebels. The Anabaptists chose the early Christian church as their guiding model.

Finishing to consider heretical movements of the given period, we will make small conclusions. Thus, the heresies of the developed Middle Ages in the 14th-15th centuries became a ubiquitous phenomenon, differentiated, filled with ever deeper social and moral-philosophical content.

On the contrary, it is Western Europe that stands on the threshold of the Reformation, when the "spiritual dictatorship of the papacy" will be "broken" and about half of Western Christians will fall away from the Roman Catholic Church. Decisive reformist calculations with Rome will become inevitable as the rudiments of capitalist production develop in the depths of feudalism and the disintegration of patriarchal-medieval relations, on which the entire system of traditional institutions of domination was based.

Reformation ideology had a long history. We find its pronouncements already in the popular heresies of the 12th century (primarily in the Lyon preacher Peter Wald).

The English priest, Oxford professor John Wycliffe (1320-1384) and the national hero of the Czech Republic, rector of the University of Prague Jan Hus (1371-1415) were accused of heresy. They proclaimed such essential principles of radical church reform as the equalization of the rights of the laity with the clergy, the secularization of church property, the abolition of most sacraments and rites, and the abolition of monasticism. They were severely persecuted and punished for their views.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"VORONEZH STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY"

Faculty of Humanities

Department of Foreign History

Control work on the topic

"Heretical Movements"

Performed:

student of the 2nd year of the 1st group

Klimova Daria Olegovna

Checked:

Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor Pechenkin S.V.

Voronezh 2014

heresy fight movement

Introduction

2.1 Arnoldists

2.2 Cathars

2.4 Waldenses

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The exploitation and violence, arbitrariness and inequality that took place in the Middle Ages provoked the protest of the oppressed. Given the dominant position of religion in the public consciousness of the Middle Ages, such a class protest could not help but take on a religious veneer. It took the form in Western Europe of various deviations from the doctrine and practice of the Roman Catholic Church, the papacy. Currents, opposition or directly hostile to the official dogma, received the name of heresies. Nersesyants V.S. History of political and legal teachings/ V.S. Nersesyants. - M.: Norma, 2004. - 944 p.

Heresies are religious teachings that, to one degree or another, deviate from the dogmas of the official church. Heresies accompany Christianity throughout its existence, beginning with its first steps as an independent religion. However, heretical movements received their greatest scope and significance in the era of feudalism.

At the first stage of the evolution of feudal relations (late 5th - mid-11th century), the heresies that existed in Western Europe did not yet have a mass base. In the XI-XII centuries. there was an upsurge of heretical movements. Quite large groups of people began to take part in them. The areas of their distribution were Northern Italy, Southern France, Flanders, and partly Germany - places of intensive urban development. In the XI-XIII centuries. the flow of oppositional heretical movements was not strictly differentiated according to social class characteristics. Later, in the XIV-XV centuries, plebeian-peasant and burgher (urban) heresies clearly emerged into independent currents.

This control work is the consideration and study of ways to combat the heretical movements of the Middle Ages; The problem is the cause and diversity of these movements. Of course, within the framework of the control work it is impossible to tell about all the heretical movements of the Middle Ages, but I will try to note the most numerous and significant of them.

Chapter I. Mechanisms for combating heresy

Heresies covered wide social strata of the population of Europe. The lower strata were drawn into the peasant-plebeian heresies, but the educated sections of the townspeople, university professors and students, also entered the burgher heresies.

The breadth of heretical teachings, their deep impact on the consciousness of the European population, naturally forced the Catholic Church itself to somehow maneuver, to resort to actions directed against heretics. The first impulse of the official church was a call for the most decisive action - the unconditional destruction of sects and heretical movements. At the cathedrals, the teachings of Arnold of Brescia, Joachim of Florence, Amory of Vienna, and Peter Olivius were anathematized. Many leaders of sects and heretical movements were condemned and burned at the stake. Not only heresiarchs were burned, but also ordinary heretics. Heretics were constantly persecuted.

However, the forms that the Catholic Church invented in the fight against heretics were not limited solely to persecution, conciliar condemnations and bonfires. One of the essential forms of combating heresy was the Crusades. In the XIII century. there were several such campaigns against the Albigensians in southern France, in the XIV century. - against the apostolics.

The listed mechanisms for combating heresy could not eradicate it, and then the church begins to frantically search for other, more effective ones. This mechanism was the institution of the Inquisition. At the end of the XII century. the Inquisition emerges as a form of papal court. In each episcopate, the position of a papal inquisitor was introduced, who conducted an investigation (inquisitio) in cases of heresy and pronounced a verdict. In the XIII century. the Inquisition becomes an independent organization with very broad powers, which reports directly to the pope. Then the time came when this subordination became purely formal. The Inquisition became an independent formidable organization that everyone feared - heretics and Catholics, peasants and townspeople, nobles and kings, secular and spiritual authorities. The popes themselves were afraid of the Inquisition. Fear is a powerful weapon, and the Inquisition knew how to use it.

The Inquisition introduces a broad system of search, judicial investigation of heretics, not disdaining such methods as denunciations and espionage. Having accused someone of heresy, the inquisitors sought recognition by all possible means - from the intricate conduct of the investigation, casuistic theological debates to the most cruel torture. Under torture, even an innocent person confessed to anything, and he was given the usual sentence - autodafe - burning at the stake. The Spanish Inquisition was especially brutal. In the XV century. in Spain was created so-called. a new inquisition led by the chief inquisitor - the Dominican Thomas Torquemada, who had tremendous influence. Under him, persecution was widespread. In Spain, bonfires were burning, on which the Gentiles were burned. The Inquisition was abolished by Napoleon. It currently exists as a congregation of the creeds.

But even the Inquisition could not fully cope with its task, it was not possible to completely eradicate the sects, and then the church took a different path - the path of legalizing some sects (this is how the moderate group of Waldensians was legalized). Nevertheless, it was impossible to destroy heresies, and they became an organic part of the life of Western Europe. The Catholic Church could not come to terms with this, and it began new searches in the ways of combating heretics. The Church drew attention to the fact that heretics had a developed sermon. And not just preaching, but preaching the ideals of poverty. The church is going to create a new type of monasticism - the so-called mendicant orders, which were supposed to preach poverty and asceticism.

This new mechanism for combating heresies began to be developed by Pope Innocent III and his followers. The mendicant orders embodied a new view of monastic asceticism, which partly went back to the ideal of canons regular. The first mendicant order - the order of the Franciscans was created in Italy. Its founder was the son of a wealthy merchant from Assisi - Francis of Assisi (1181/2 - 1226). He wandered through Italy, eating alms, and his ideal was "Lady Poverty." Very quickly, Francis acquires followers, who are called minorites, i.e. "little brothers". From his students, Francis of Assisi demanded the renunciation not only of wealth, but also of any kind of property; life of alms, austerities and obedience. Francis of Assisi criticized monasticism, but did not deny monasticism as an institution. He only called on the monks to leave the walls of the monastery and begin to live the way the Franciscan order lives - almsgiving, preaching and obedience to the world. After his death, Francis was canonized by the Catholic Church. By the middle of the XIII century. the Franciscan order departed from its original ideals and turned into one of the richest monastic orders, and at the head of it was no longer a poor man and a vagabond "out of this world", but a general appointed by the pope. One of the main tasks of the order is the fight against heresy. The order quickly spread throughout Europe, and in the XIII century. it already had more than a thousand of the richest monasteries of the once mendicant Franciscan order. In addition to the fight against heretics, this order was engaged in the training of Catholic theologians, and also played a large role in the politics and diplomacy of the papacy.

The second mendicant order - the Order of the Dominicans - arises in the 13th century. in Spain and is also named after its founder - the monk Dominic (1170-1221) (in the world Dominic de Guzman). This order immediately, from the moment of its foundation, submits to the pope. The Dominicans attached great importance to the art of preaching and to scholastic theological disputes. The preaching brothers (as the Dominicans were called), with the support of the pope, very soon occupied the theological chairs of the largest universities in Europe. Major theologians such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas emerged from the Dominican order. The Dominicans played a huge role in the politics of the papacy, but their main task was to fight heresy. On their banner was a dog with a torch in its mouth, and they called themselves the dogs of the Lord, who gnawed out heresy. Some researchers believe that the Dominicans were the creators, on the orders of the Pope, the Inquisition. Other researchers believe that most of the inquisitors were Dominicans. The Sorbonne, the theological faculty of the University of Paris, headed by the Dominicans, becomes the highest court in determining the deviation of unorthodox teachings from the orthodox. The Dominicans and personally Dominic himself took a direct part in the suppression of the Albigensian movement.

Both "mendicant" orders were widely involved in politics and diplomacy, as well as the expansion of Catholicism. The Order of the Dominicans was especially successful in this field. The vector of expansion was directed to the East. In the XIII century, even before the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the Dominicans founded their monastery near Kiev. They penetrate into China, Japan and other eastern countries.

However, neither the persecution of heretics, nor the Inquisition, nor the mendicant orders led to the renewal, reformation of Catholicism and could not prevent the crisis of the papacy in the XIV-XV centuries.

Chapter II. Heretical movements of the Middle Ages

2.1 Arnoldists

The earliest heretical sects appeared in the 11th century. in France, Italy and the German lands. One of the first creators of an independent heretical doctrine was Arnold of Brescia (1100-1155), who was also the first heretic politician - he led an uprising against the bishop in Brescia, an anti-papal uprising in Rome. Arnold was a student of Peter Abelard and supported his teacher in the fight against Bernard of Clairvaux. In his teaching, Arnold of Brescia criticized the contemporary church based on the gospel. In addition, he demanded the transfer of all spiritual power to secular persons. The sect he created was called the Arnoldists. It was one of the first, early burgher heresies. Arnold of Brescia demanded the deprivation of property of the clergy, the elimination of the institution of bishops, denounced the idleness of the clergy, called for a return to the simplicity of apostolic times. He recognized the institution of the papacy, but disagreed with the official understanding of the sacraments of the Eucharist and baptism.

The Arnoldist sect continued to exist even after the execution of Arnold of Brescia, which was carried out on the orders of Frederick I Barbarossa. In the XIII century. it dissolved into other heretical movements. In the XII-XIII centuries. account for the flourishing of the heretical movement in northern Italy and southern France. In these regions, almost the entire population was heretical. In Lombardy alone, Arnoldists, Cathars, Waldensians, Fraticelli, Apostolics, Flagellants and many others flourished. Since all these heresies, as a rule, originated in cities, they conditionally belong to the burgher direction of the heretical movement.

2.2 Cathars

One of the most massive areas of the heretical movement of the XII century. was the heresy of the Cathars. The name comes from the Greek word katharos - pure. In their teaching, the Cathars began not with a denial of the established church hierarchy, but with a denial of the state as such, its power. The Cathars also denied physical violence, bloodshed. Denying the state, they denied both the Church and the whole earthly world. The rejection of the Cathars was truly cosmic. They considered the earthly world as a product and creation of Satan, and they considered the Pope of Rome to be his direct governor. Naturally, they denied dogmatics, and the cults of the official church, and its hierarchy, opposed its wealth and power.

The doctrine of the Cathars is complex. It had strong dualistic ideas. Much in the teachings of the Cathars was borrowed from the Bulgarian Bogomils, or Paulicians, whose teachings were rooted in the oldest dualistic religions of the East - primarily in Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism, which represented the world as a struggle between light and darkness, good and evil, where evil and darkness triumph.

In addition to their own teaching, the Cathars created their own church organization, as well as their teaching, quite complex. It consisted of two circles. The first circle, or inner circle, was the circle of the perfect - perfecti. They were prescribed a mandatory departure from the world and the strictest asceticism. They were not supposed to show themselves in the outside world in any way. The second circle, which included most of the Cathars, was open to the outside world. All actions of the Cathars of the second circle, up to the choice of a profession, were without fail prescribed by their heresiarchs. The cathars of the second circle were the guides and link between the perfecti and the outside world. In the outside world, the perfecti also had special secret agents, from whom they also received the necessary information about everything that was happening in Europe, in its secular and church life. In the early stages of its existence, the Cathar heresy spread widely throughout southern Europe, where the Cathars often merged with other heresies. Such a fusion, although more limited, is characteristic of the Cathars in later times.

2.3 Chiliastic teachings of Joachim of Florence

Another heretical teaching that became widespread was the chiliastic teaching of Joachim of Florence (Calabria) (1132-1202), a Cistercian monk. The teachings of Joachimites enjoyed great prestige in Europe in the 12th-13th centuries. This teaching can be seen as a theological heresy. The central and most important moment in the heretical theology of Joachim of Florence was the interpretation of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, which he considered as a mystical embodiment of the three eras of world history. At first, the power of God the Father dominated, which is characterized by severity and the requirement of slavish submission to itself. This era was "regulated" by the ancient law of Moses, embodied in Old Testament. The second era is softer - the power of God the Son, based on the Gospel, the New Testament. And the third era - the era of the Holy Spirit, or the "eternal Gospel" - the realm of true love, complete freedom and eternal justice. According to the teachings of Joachim of Florence, this kingdom was to come as a result of a universal upheaval, and very soon. Joachim of Florsky even set its exact dates - between 1200 and 1260.

The teachings of Joachim of Florence were distinguished by strictness, but at the same time they promised people an early deliverance from suffering, and not in the heavenly world, but even in earthly life. Therefore, it was so attractive and gained great popularity in Europe. This teaching was close to the teaching of Francis of Assisi, who also preached "holy poverty" and asceticism. The teachings of Joachim of Florence protested against the social and spiritual oppression of the church and state. Condemned at the Lateran Council in 1215, the teachings of Joachim of Florence later influenced the teachings and activities of T. Müntzer.

2.4 Waldenses

At the same time, the heresy of the Waldensians, the founder of which was the rich Lyon merchant Pierre Wald, was gaining wide distribution and influence in Europe. Abandoning his usual way of life, he began to preach the ideals of poverty and asceticism. His followers, as is customary among all heretics, criticized the Catholic clergy and Catholic dogma. They denied the tripartite idea of ​​the afterlife, i.e. denied purgatory. They denied most church sacraments: icon veneration, worship, cults of saints, church hierarchy, church tithes, taxes, military service, feudal courts, the death penalty, and so on. Very many provisions from the teachings of the Waldensians brought them closer to the Cathars. Therefore, it is no coincidence that at the end of the XII century. the Cathars and part of the Waldensians who preached in southern France united and received the common name Albigensians. This name comes from the southern French city of Albi, the former center of the French Cathars.

In the XIII century. the Waldensian sect, as an independent one, broke up, but they did not disappear, but went to other sects. Some of them went for rapprochement with the official Catholic Church and remained in history under the name "Catholic poor". The Catholic Church recognized some features of their cult and the right to preach.

Another part of the Waldenses moved to the German lands, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, and there, in the XIV century. this teaching is widely spread among the peasants and small urban artisans. Part of the Waldensians, striving for a monastic, hermit ideal, did not merge with other sects, but went to hard-to-reach places in Western Europe. There were many such places at that time in Switzerland and in Savoy.

Conclusion

The noose, the executioner's ax, the fire have always been the last arguments of the church and the then state in the fight against heresies. However, with the death of heretics, oppositional, rebellious heretical ideas did not perish at all and did not disappear without a trace from the historical scene.

The reasons for the emergence of such a variety of heretical movements were: the emergence and growth of cities; class-incomplete position of townspeople in a feudal society; exploitation of the urban lower classes not only by the secular and church feudal lords, but also by the urban merchants; sharpness of social contradictions; finally, relatively (in comparison with the countryside) active social life in the cities.

“Revolutionary opposition to feudalism,” wrote F. Engels, “passes through the entire Middle Ages. It appears, according to the conditions of the time, now in the form of mysticism, now in the form of open heresy, now in the form of an armed uprising.

Bibliography

1. Bulgakov S.V. Reference book on heresies, sects and schisms / S. V. Bulgakov. - M.: Sovremennik, 1994. - 164 p.

2. Grigulevich I.R. Inquisition / I.R. Grigulevich. - M.: Politizdat, 1985. - 448 p.

3. Lysak I.V. Culture of Antiquity and the Middle Ages: tutorial/ I.V. Lysak. - Taganrog: TRTU, 2002. - 162 p.

4. Lusher A. Innocent III and the Albigensian Crusade / A. Lusher. - St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 2003. - 288 p.

5. Nersesyants V.S. History of political and legal doctrines / V.S. Nersesyants. - M.: Norma, 2004. - 944 p.

6. Pavlovsky Y. Essays on the history of the Catholic Church / Y. Pavlovsky. - Rezekne: 1994. - 640 p.

7. Stam S.M. Middle Ages: city, heresy, reformation / S.M. Stam. - Saratov: Renaissance, 1998. - 344 p.

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Greek - special teaching, school) - in Christianity, currents that deviate from the official church doctrine. The emergence of heresies dates back to the first centuries of the existence of Christianity; in the struggle against the Arians, Monophysites, etc., the formation of the official dogmas of Christianity took place.

In the Middle Ages, heresy was understood by the church as a betrayal of God and the gravest, unforgivable sin. Heretics were hated more than people of a different religion, such as Muslims, because. they were external enemies, not Christians, while the heretics considered themselves genuine Christians. The teaching of heretics, from the point of view of the church, undermined and undermined its power and authority.

These movements flared up from time to time in medieval Europe. Among artisans, merchants, knights, simple priests and monks, sometimes nobles, there were people who thought about the contradiction between Christian teaching and what they observed in life. Heretics were people who were filled with doubts. Concerned about the salvation of their own souls, like other believers, they did not believe that the teaching of the church could provide or facilitate this salvation. The city was one of the main centers where such doubts arose.

The heresies of the Albigensians, the Waldensians (France, Italy, Germany) became widespread in the X ((- X (((((centuries).

To combat heresies at the beginning of the 10th century, the Inquisition was established (translated from Latin - search, investigation) - a church court, the main task of which was to expose and prosecute heretics.

After the adoption of Christianity in Rus', the struggle of the official church against heresies, which became widespread during the period of dual faith, also unfolded. The peak of heretical movements in Rus' falls on the XIV-XVI centuries.

In the 11th century, Bogomilism (named after the Bulgarian priest Bogumil) became widespread in Rus'. According to this concept, the world is ruled by good and evil, which are embodied in the images of God and the devil. The Bogomils taught that once Satan was the son of God - Satanail. He envied his father and persuaded the angels to depart from God, for which God took away the last syllable of the name "silt" from his son and cast him down to Earth along with his army. Satan has become the ruler of the earth. Therefore, the Bogomils denied everything earthly, material, including the official church. Their teaching was very ascetic, focused on purely spiritual values, which expressed the protest of the lower strata of society against social inequality, was the basis for the consolidation of the common people. Bogomilstvo was reflected in the oral folk art in the plots of confrontation between Truth and Krivda.

The ideas of the strigolniks were very popular (their author was considered to be Deacon Karp, who was executed in 1375 in Novgorod for his sermons). According to this dogma, priests receive their dignity not according to their merit, but "for a bribe", therefore one should not receive communion, repent, or be baptized. Novgorod-Pskov hairdressers, evading church rituals, revived old pagan rituals and ideas. It is important that this movement led to disputes and polemics in Russian society. For the first time in Rus', humanistic demands for social and universal equality, religious tolerance and free thought took shape.

The most important aspect of papal policy was the fight against heresies. heresy- religious teachings, to one degree or another deviating from the dogmas of the official church. Heresies accompany Christianity throughout its existence, beginning with its first steps as an independent religion. However, heretical movements gained their greatest scope and significance in the era of feudalism.

The Christian religion in medieval Europe determined the worldview of people.

In the early Middle Ages, when feudal relations were not yet formed, Europe did not yet know mass heretical movements. Their rise takes place during the period of the developed Middle Ages, which is associated with the emergence and growth of cities. The intensification of the exploitation of the peasantry created the ground for involving it in heretical movements. “Revolutionary opposition to feudalism,” wrote F. Engels, “passes through the entire Middle Ages. It appears, according to the conditions of the time, now in the form of mysticism, now in the form of open heresy, now in the form of an armed uprising.

Social essence and main ideas of medieval heresies. According to the social orientation, two types of medieval heresies can be distinguished - burgher and peasant-plebeian. The first expressed the protest of the townspeople against the feudal fetters that impeded the development of the urban economy. It provided for the elimination of the special position of the clergy, the political claims of the papacy, the land wealth of the church, sought to simplify and reduce the cost of rituals and improve the moral character of the clergy. The ideal of these heretics was the early Christian "apostolic" church - simple, "cheap" and "clean". Heresies of this type spoke only against "ecclesiastical feudalism" and did not affect the foundations of the feudal system as a whole. Therefore, whole groups of feudal lords sometimes joined them, trying to use the burgher heresy in their own interests (for the sake of secularizing church property or limiting the political influence of the papacy). So it was in the era of the Albigensian wars in southern France, the Hussite wars in Bohemia, during the time of Wyclif in England.

Much more radical were the peasant-plebeian heresies, which reflected the hostile attitude of the dispossessed lower classes of the city and countryside not only towards the church and the clergy, but also towards the nobility. Sharing all the religious demands of the burgher heresy, the peasant-plebeian heresy demanded, in addition, equality between people, thereby negating class differences. Peasant-plebeian heresies, as a rule, also demanded the abolition of serfdom and corvée, while individual extreme sects called for the establishment of property equality and the community of property. In the XIV-XV centuries. the most radical peasant-plebeian heresies were often combined with popular uprisings (apostles, Lollards, Taborites, etc.).

At the same time, throughout the Middle Ages, there were also such heresies in which the elements of both of these currents - the burghers and the peasant-plebeian - were not clearly distinguished.

The dogma of heretical teachings: a critical attitude towards the clergy of all ranks, including the pope, criticism of indulgences. A more moderate part of the heretics considered themselves true Catholics, seeking to help correct the church. Another, no less significant part openly broke with the Catholic Church, creating their own religious organizations (Cathars, Waldensians, Apostolics, Taborites); the most radical among them (especially the Apostolics, the Lollards of the 14th century) transferred their hostile attitude towards the Catholic Church to the entire feudal social system.

The vast majority of heretical teachings were also characterized by the desire to follow the Gospel, recognizing it as the only source of faith, as opposed to the writings of the "fathers of the church", decisions of councils, papal bulls, etc. One of the most popular ideas in the circles of heretics was the idea of ​​"apostolic poverty, the ideal of asceticism, Mystic.

The historical role of heresies: they undermined the authority and spiritual dictates of the Catholic Church, contributed to the spread of freethinking (although heretics themselves most often did not show freethinking, they were characterized by fanaticism and intolerance towards dissidents, and shook the feudal system.

The main heretical movements of the XI-XIII centuries. Separate sects of heretics became widespread in Western Europe already at the beginning of the 11th century. in France, Italy, Germany. In the second half of the XI century. broad popular movements unfolded in the cities of Italy (Milan, Florence). One of the first creators of an independent heretical doctrine was Arnold of Brescia, who led in the middle of the 12th century. anti-papal uprising in Rome. The sect he created (Arnoldists), representing the early burgher heresy, continued to exist even after the execution of their leader. Rise of heretical movements falls on the second half of the XII and XIII centuries. There were especially many of them in these centuries in southern France and northern Italy, where heretics made up a significant part of the population. Among the most massive heretical movements of the XII century. applies cathar heresy(from the Greek "kataros" - clean). They refused to recognize the authority of the state, rejected physical violence and the shedding of blood. They considered the Catholic Church, as well as the entire earthly world, to be the creation of Satan, and the pope to be his vicar.

Great influence among the heretics of the XII-XIII centuries. used the ideas of Joachim Florsky (or Calabrian), one of the greatest mystics of that time. The ideas of Joachimism have long enjoyed great popularity among the people.

Evangelical ideas were especially widespread in the ranks of heretics. Among the many sects that dreamed of reviving the order of the early Christian church, of particular importance in the XIII century. acquired the Waldensians. The son of a wealthy Lyon merchant, Peter Wald, who lived in the last quarter of the 12th century, began an active preaching of poverty and asceticism. His followers, the Waldenses, along with sharp criticism of the priests, put forward ideas that challenge church dogma: they denied purgatory, most of the sacraments, icons, prayers, the cult of saints, the church hierarchy, their ideal was the "poor" apostolic church. They also opposed church tithes, taxes, military service, the feudal court and denied the death penalty. Part of the Waldensians moved to Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, where in the XIV century. Waldensianism spread widely among peasants and small urban artisans.

In Italy, evangelical ideas were professed by the flagellants sect. Flagellants (“flagging”) took to the roads and streets in rags, barefoot and publicly tortured themselves, bringing their supporters to a state of ecstasy.

Heresies in the 12th and 13th centuries were widely distributed not only among the lower strata of the population, but also among the educated part of the townspeople

The struggle of the church against heretical movements. Inquisition. The church fought against heretical ideas and anti-clerical movements with cruel fanaticism and intransigence. Church cathedrals of the XII-XIII centuries. obligated not only the clergy, but also the secular authorities to take an active part in this struggle. At the cathedrals, at various times, Cathars, Patarens, Waldensians, and later Beguins were anathematized. The teachings of Joachim of Florence, Amory of Vienna, and later of Peter Olivi were recognized as heresy and banned in the 15th century. - John Wyclif and Jan Hus. Hundreds of leaders of heretical movements and sects were convicted and burned, and ordinary heretics were subjected to severe persecution. The most bloody form of reprisals against heretics were the crusades inspired by the church and the papacy: against the Albigensians (began in 1209), against the apostolics (1306-1307), five crusades against the Hussites (1420-1431), etc.

The Inquisition (from the Latin inquisitio - investigation) played a special role in the fight against heresies. Emerged at the end of the XII century. as a form of ecclesiastical court, carried out at first by bishops, the inquisition was gradually withdrawn from the control of the bishops and turned in the first half of the 13th century. into an independent organization with enormous powers and subordinate directly to the pope. Gradually, the Inquisition created a special system of search and judicial investigation of heretics. She widely introduced espionage and denunciations into practice. Sophisticated torture was applied to the stubborn. The zeal of the inquisitors and their scammers was rewarded by the division between them of a part of the property confiscated from the convicts. Already in the XIII century. Along with heretics, the Inquisition began to persecute scientists and philosophers who showed free thinking. The most common punishment for heretics was burning at the stake, often in groups (the so-called auto-da-fe - from the Portuguese auto-da-fe - a matter of faith). One of the most tragic pages in the history of mankind is connected with the activities of the Inquisition.

Heretical movements of the XIV-XV centuries.

Despite the brutal persecution and the activities of mendicant orders, heretical movements did not stop. New heresies arose to replace the old ones. In the XIV-XV centuries. their center moved from southern France and Lombardy to northeastern France, the Netherlands, England, southern and western Germany, and the Czech Republic. An important feature of the heretical movements of this period was a clear demarcation between burgher and peasant-plebeian heresies, the transformation of the latter into radical heresies, which sometimes merge with peasant uprisings. So, the sect of the Apostolics, headed by Dolcino at the beginning of the XIV century. played a leading role in the peasant-plebeian uprising, led by Dolcino. The heresy of the early Lollards, like-minded John Ball, merged with the rebellion of Wat Tyler.

One of the most massive heretical movements of the late XIII-XIV centuries. - the movement of the Beguins, as well as the Beguards and Fraticelli close to them, which swept the Southern Netherlands, German lands, Austria, the Czech Republic, Italy and France. The views of the theologian Olivi had a great influence on the heretics.

In the XV century. the most significant heretical movements were the English Lollardism and Gusism. Lollards 15th century based on the teachings of John Wyclif. They sharply criticized the clergy, opposed the church hierarchy, most of the sacraments, icon veneration, church tithes, demanded the secularization of church property, freedom to preach for everyone, including the laity, worship in their native language, but did not encroach on the existing system.

Hussite movement. Actions against the abuses of the German clergy, opposition to the Catholic Church and the struggle for the national Czech Church resulted in a broad social movement that took on a religious form. Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415), professor of theology at the University of Prague, led this movement. He denounced the vices of the Catholic clergy, spoke out against church wealth and demanded the secularization of church property. He led the fight against the Germans who dominated the University of Prague. It ended with the transfer of the management of the university to the Czechs (1409) and the election of Jan Hus as rector of the university.

The Catholic Church and the German clergy of the Czech Republic waged a fierce struggle against Hus. At first he was excommunicated and had to leave Prague (1412), and after a while the pope summoned him to a church council in Konstanz. Here Hus was condemned for his beliefs as a heretic and burned at the stake (1415).

Hussite heresy, which arose in the Czech Republic at the beginning of the 15th century. involved in its orbit a variety of social strata. Initially, Hussism was based on the moderate burgher doctrine of Jan Hus, which also reflected the desire of all sections of Czech society to liberate themselves from German domination and the dictates of the papacy. But then the movement split into two camps: moderate - chashnikov, heretics of the burgher type, and the radical - taborist, in which in the early 20s of the XV century. revolutionary peasant-plebeian, in particular chiliastic, ideas about the imminent establishment of the kingdom of God on earth prevailed.