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The largest of the Shiite sects, the Ismaili sect, occupies a special place in the socio-political life of the peoples of the East. Ismaili doctrine originated in the 8th century. V Arab Caliphate during the reign of the Abbasid dynasty. By that time, there were many currents, sects and sects in Islam, the dividing line between which passed along two main directions: "orthodox" Sunnism (from the word "Sunnah" - sacred tradition, a set of stories about the actions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) and Shiism (from the word shi "A -" the party of Ali "). The Ismaili doctrine arose in an environment of ongoing struggle for power between various feudal groups in Iran, Iraq and other countries, movements of peasants, artisans and The reason for the emergence of Ismailism was a dispute over the succession of Imamate 1 under the sixth Shiite Imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, who deprived his eldest son Ismail of the right to inherit, allegedly because of the latter's addiction to wine. adherents of Jafar did not agree with this and, declaring Ismail the legitimate seventh imam, refused to honor the official imams who followed Jafar.On behalf of Imam Ismail, the name of the sect is also produced - Ismailis 2.
Since the religion of the Abbasid caliphs was Sunni Islam, and the supporters of Shiism were punished as heretics and apostates, the Ismaili sect, having begun to act as a secret religious and political organization, was in opposition to the authorities, which attracted the oppressed masses. The group of feudal lords, which opposed the Abbasids and needed a more flexible religious teaching for the ideological justification of their struggle, adopted Ismailism, which outwardly corresponded to the anti-feudal aspirations of the masses, and used these aspirations to achieve their political goals. Thus, from the moment of their inception, the Ismailis united in their ranks the most active and opposition-minded members of society, for which they earned themselves the fame of a radical sect.
The history of the Ismailis, full of dramatic events, the peculiarities of their doctrine, complex philosophical concept, dogmatics and rituals continue to attract the attention of researchers to this day. However, despite the existence of an extensive literature on the Ismailis, including the works of medieval Sunni and Ismaili historians, theologians and jurists, the biographies of imams, philosophical treatises and the latest publications, many of the circumstances of the activities of this sect, in particular the early period of its history, the characteristic features of the organization and religious doctrine, still remain either not fully elucidated, or have not received a unified interpretation. In addition, the modern activities of the Ismailis in African countries are clearly insufficiently studied.
The problems associated with the study of early Ismailism are complicated by the fact that from the moment of its inception, the Ismaili sect, which was in a hostile environment and was subjected to constant persecution, resembled a secret society, the nature of which
1 Imamat - the supreme leadership of the Muslim community, the state. The doctrine of the imamate is the main dogma of Shiite Islam, which rejects the principle of election, since the supreme power of the head of the Muslim community and the Muslim state is legal "by virtue of the divine establishment" (Al-Hasan ibn Musa an Naubakhti. Shiite sects. M. 1973, p. 197) .
2 L.I. Klimovich, who studied the customs and beliefs of the Shugnan Ismailis (Pamir), indicates that some Ismailis derive the name of their sect from the word "ism ba ism", that is, "the name was embodied in the name" (L.I. Klimovich Islam, Moscow, 1962, p. 140).
which it retains to this day, the Ismaili ideologists, having adopted some of the tenets of Neoplatonism and Buddhism and outwardly adapted them to Islam, developed a complex religious and philosophical doctrine 3 . It contained many ideas that were contrary to the teachings of orthodox Islam (which contributed to the development of free thinking). Such, for example, was the belief in the power human mind, the chanting of knowledge and its role in human life. Those who joined the organization perceived the "external" (zahir) doctrine of Ismailism, which differed little from moderate Shiism. And only the members of the highest levels, the feudal elite of the sect, were revealed the "internal", secret (in Arabic "batin", hence one of the names of the Ismailis - "batinites") teaching, which included an allegorical interpretation of the Koran, the dogma of the imamate, as well as the general system philosophical knowledge in conjunction with theology.
The religious practice of the Ismailis was characterized by a simplification of rituals and ceremonies, which significantly distinguished them from other Shiite sects. So, the Ismailis performed prayer (namaz) only twice a day, and not five, like true Muslims. They did not build mosques and prayed in special prayer houses (jamaatkhans); did not consider the holidays as a mandatory requirement of the Koran, for which they were condemned even by other Shiites. Among the Ismailis, the cult of imams was developed to such an extent that the birthdays of imams became the most magnificent holidays. The Ismailis denied such an important Muslim rite as the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca and Medina - the places where the activities of the Prophet Muhammad took place.
Members of the Ismaili organization were divided into seven degrees. Members of the lower grades were not privy to the political aims of the sect. The latter were known only to holders of higher degrees, whose activities were surrounded by mystery. Some provisions of the Ismaili doctrine were not made public. All this acted on the imagination of ordinary Ismailis - peasants and Bedouins, who made up the bulk of the members of the sect. They were attracted not so much by the complex religious philosophical system Ismailism how much the organization of the sect; without delving into the subtleties of the new dogma, they pinned hopes on it for deliverance from the hardships and sorrows of everyday life. And the Ismaili missionaries adapted to the conditions of the time and, being under constant threat from the ministers of orthodox Islam, they vigorously propagated their teachings, often relying on anti-feudal peasant movements.
The propaganda procedure itself was carefully designed and successfully carried out in practice for many centuries. After a preliminary acquaintance with the intended person (at the same time, the rule expressed by the saying was in effect: “In a room where a lamp is lit, one should not think,” that is, “with Sunnis one cannot talk about Ismailism”) and positioning him in his favor, the missionary aroused doubt in the interlocutor in the religion he professed. He pointed out the inconsistency of certain provisions of the Koran and declared the unanimity of all "great Muslims" with the Ismaili doctrine. In order to bind the new converts more firmly, the missionary clothed the theological, philosophical, and scientific questions he discussed with them in obscure, allegorical formulas, arousing curiosity about new religion. If a person who joined a sect demanded clarification, they took terrible oaths to keep secrets and took large sums of money as collateral (depending on the financial situation of the new convert) 4 .
As a single religious movement, Ismailism did not last long and soon broke up into a number of sects and subsects. In the X century. he, who already had his adherents in many countries of the East and in North Africa, acted in the form of two main directions: the official religion of the Fatimid caliphs, who dominated Egypt from the 10th century. until 1171 (“Fatimid Ismailism” was not much different from moderate Shiism), and the teachings of the “Semirichyaiks” (recognized only seven imams, considering Ismail the last), or Karmats (the name probably comes from the name of the founder of the sect, Ham-
3 See about him: A. E. Bertelier. Nasir-i Khosrow and Ismailism. M. 1959; A. A. Semenov. To the dogma of Pamir Ismailism. Tashkent. 1926; W. A. Ivanov. Studies in Early Persian Ismailism. Leiden. 1952; B. Lewis. The Origins of Ismailism. Cambridge. 1940.
4 N. A. Smirnov. Muslim sectarianism. M. 1930, pp. 34 - 35.
dana Karmata) 5 - one of the extreme forms of Ismailism. Originating and spreading among the urban lower classes and the poorest peasantry of Mesopotamia, the Karmatian creed opposed itself to the dominant ideology of Sunni Islam. The Karmatians did not follow the generally accepted prescriptions of the Muslim cult, waged a fanatical struggle against religious opponents, who were mercilessly dealt with. The most famous "deed" of the Karmatians was a raid on Mecca in 930, at the height of the Muslim holiday that took place there. A detachment of Karmatians killed or enslaved many pilgrims, and also plundered, destroyed or damaged a number of objects of Muslim worship, among them the famous Muslim fetish - the "black stone" of the Kaaba 6 . The powerful state of the Qarmatians in Bahrain in the X-XI centuries. 7 was built on the idea of a "hidden imam", which corresponded to the aspirations of ordinary members of the Qarmatian society for equality, which ensured the comparative duration of the existence of this state. The anti-feudal and anti-orthodox doctrine of the Karmatians was considered in the Middle Ages as heretical. However, it had a significant impact on the philosophy, literature and art of its time, leaving a noticeable mark in history 8 .
In the first quarter of the XI century. the Druze sect broke away from the Ismailis (the name is supposed to come from the name of the preacher Darazi) 9, whose teachings were based on the belief in the divinity of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, who was revered by the Druzes as the only god. The Druze sect included mainly the highlanders of Lebanon and Syria. The Druze community was so different from other Muslim sects in its social structure, peculiarities of its religious organization, and even in its language, that this allowed some researchers to consider it not only as a special sect, but even as a special nationality. This issue remains controversial to this day. The religious cult and rituals of the Druze were simple. They did not consider it obligatory for themselves to perform all Muslim rites, and the instructions of the Koran were interpreted allegorically. As members of a secret organization, the Druze considered it their duty to help each other. Engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding in the difficult natural conditions of the mountainous regions, they were distinguished by diligence, abstinence and courage 10 . The Druze fought more than once with the Maronites (Arab Christians).
In 1078, an event similar to the excommunication of Ismail took place in the history of Ismailism. That year, the Caliph of Fatilshd, Mustansir, to the detriment of the interests of his elder son Nizar, appointed his younger son Mustali as his heir. This led to a split of the Ismailis into two groups: the Nizari, who recognize only the descendants of Nizar as imams, and the Muetalites, who consider only the descendants of Mustali to be legitimate. The Mustalites were victorious in Egypt and Syria, while the Nizari prevailed in Iran and India. In Iran, where there was a long civil strife between various groups of feudal lords, the oppositional Ismaili creed was perceived by that part of them that sought to somehow ideologically justify the struggle for the return of their lands and privileges taken away by the Seljuk feudal lords, adherents of orthodox Islam. Under such circumstances, the Nizari organization, which gained gloomy fame and surrounded by a halo of mystery, was formed - the order of assassins (an assassin is a consumer of hashish, in a figurative sense - a "murderer"). Its founder Hasan-i Sabbah, having captured with his supporters in 1090 the hard-to-reach castle of Alamut ("Eagle's Nest") in the spurs of Elburz, created a state that extended its influence to many regions of Iran and Syria. The period of its existence (1090 - 1256) is the most
5 I. P. Petrushevsky. Islam in Iran in the 7th-15th centuries. L. 1966, pp. 283-284; W. Ivanov. The Rise of the Fatimids. L. 1942, p. E9.
6 The Kaaba is a sacred temple in Mecca. The cult of the Kaaba is one of the main cults of Sunni Islam.
8 Suffice it to recall the names of the Syrian-Arab poet and philosopher Abu-l-Ala al-Maari, the famous poet Rubaki, then Nasir-i Khosrov, the Central Asian scientist and philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who shared the ideas of the Karmatians.
9 E. A. Belyaev. Muslim sectarianism. M. 1957, p. 65.
10 Ibid., pp. 64-69; Z. Mazhets. The Lebanese Druzes. "Asia and Africa Today", 1974, N 4; P. K. Hitti. The Origins of the Druze People and Religion. N. Y. 1928.
more vivid and eventful than any other in the history of Ismailism 11 . It is surrounded by legends and fictions through which it is difficult to get to the truth.
A significant achievement of Ismaili thought was the creation by Sabbah of a new religious doctrine, different from Fatimid Ismailism and more radical in its essence - the "new call". It was based on faith in the imam, whose arrival the masses associated with the establishment of social justice. The idea of the divinity of the imams, the view of them as the living embodiment of "divine revelation" and blind obedience to the "living god" 12 are characteristic features of neo-Ismailism that have survived to this day. The protest of the peasants against social inequality, oppression and lack of rights under the rule of the Seljuk feudal lords found a religious expression in the dogma "new call", which attracted new supporters to the Assassins. Ordinary people were also attracted by the external attributes of the Ismaili organization, which surrounded its pomp and mystery, the unusualness of the very methods of struggle chosen by the Assassins - individual terror and blackmail, widely introduced into practice by the Alamut imams to achieve their goals. Hasan-i Sabbah had loyal warriors who, on his orders, unquestioningly committed the murders of objectionable people. They were fidai - "sacrifice of life", who were allegedly drugged with a drug mixture containing Indian hemp - hashish, which causes hallucinations. Doomed (since they most often died during terrorist acts) and called upon to become a blind tool in the hands of the top of the sect, the fidai killed both representatives of the feudal nobility and the highest Sunni clergy, and personal enemies of Hassan. The reasons for the killings were also revenge for the shed blood of the Ismailis and for the leadership of military campaigns against the state of the Assassins, punishment for apostasy from Sabbah, help to the allies and simply robbery.
When in 1256, under the onslaught of the Mongols and the Egyptian Mamluk sultans, the state of the Assassins fell, small groups of their descendants settled in the Caucasus and Iran (Kerman), where the hostile attitude on the part of orthodox Sunnis often forced them to resort to the method of external renunciation of their faith ( "taqiyya") and carefully hide their imams 13 . Because of this, the period that followed the defeat of the state of the Assassins, more than any other in the history of Ismailism, has not been sufficiently studied. Nevertheless, the sect continued to actively preach its doctrine. India 14 becomes the main object of missionary propaganda, where by the 16th century. as a result of the conversion to Islam of Hindus from local commercial and usurious castes, the Ismaili sects of Khoja and Bohra were formed. Khoja belonged to the Nizari branch, Bohra - to the Mustalite branch. At the same time, the missionaries acted with great caution and at the same time extremely energetically. The greatest success was achieved by a certain Sadruddin, who appeared in Western India at the beginning of the 15th century. Acting according to the principle of taqiyya, he posed as a Hindu and took an Indian name. While distributing religious Hindu books, Sadruddin inserted Ismaili treatises outlining the new dogma into them. Gradually, the Ismaili doctrine acquired adherents in Sindh, Kutch, Gujarat and some areas of the Punjab, where the Ismailis began to be called Khoja 16 .
The Bohra (Bokhara) 17 community, which also turned into a trading caste over time, arose in Gujarat. As is typical of many sects, it did not escape a split. Already in the 16th century, when the question arose of transferring the residence of the religious head of the Mustalite Ismailis yes "i-al-mutlak from Yemen to India, the Bohras were divided into two independent communities: Daudi and Suleymani. Yes" and-al-mutlak suley-
11 See L. V. Stroeva. Destruction by the Mongols of the Ismaili state in Iran. " scholarly notes"Leningrad University, 1954, N 179.
12 A. Masset. Islam. M. 1962, p. 150.
13 W. Ivanov. Tombs of Some Persian Ismaili Imams. Cit. after: "Studia Islamica", 1969, N 29, p. 56.
14 The first preachers of Ismailism entered India from Egypt and Yemen as early as the 11th century. They received special training in Cairo, where they studied Indian languages, customs and religion, in particular Jainism and Hinduism.
15 "Islam in India and the Middle East". L. 1956, p. 51.
16 The word "Khoja" was used by the Hindus in relation to merchants from the countries of the Persian Gulf (W. Iwanov. A Guide to Ismaili Literature. L. 1933, p. 6).
17 The word "bohra" means "trade"; according to another version - "several sects" (S. I. Trimingham. Islam in East Africa. Oxford. 1964, p. 105).
the Maniy remained in Yemen, and the head of the Daudis, who made up the majority of the Bohrs, settled in Bombay 18 . The peculiarity of these communities was that, being religious sects, they simultaneously retained a caste character and various Hindu customs, which influenced their daily life and organization. By the time of the English conquest of India, the Bohra and Khoja turned into trading castes with their typical features: the heredity of the profession, endogamy (marriage within the community) and isolation even in relation to co-religionists who do not belong to this community, as well as intra-caste lending. In addition, they retained the institutions characteristic of those Hindu castes from which they arose. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the resettlement of Khoja and Bohra from Gujarat and Sindh began throughout India and beyond its borders: to the countries South-East Asia and East Africa, to Arabia, where they were engaged in trade and business activities.
The Ismailis continued to be actively involved in political life. The decisive factor in strengthening the position of the Ismaili elite was its support for Britain's claims in Iran and India. Indicative in this regard is the story of the 45th Nizari Imam Agha Hassan Ali Shah, a major Persian feudal lord, ruler of the Kerman region. In 1840, he was provoked by the British, who were striving to prepare the ground for establishing their influence in Khorasan and Herat, to attack the Shah of Iran 19 . The uprising, however, was crushed, and the imam was forced to flee to India, where at that time England was at war with the emir of Sindh. Agha Hasan rendered a serious service to the British command by issuing him a plan for the defense of the Emirati capital of Hyderabad, which soon fell on 20 . The capture of Sindh was followed by the conquest of Balochistan. Here Agha Hasan once again proved his loyalty to the British colonialists. He developed an energetic diplomatic activity, persuading the leaders of the Baluch to collude with the British. When his attempts ended in failure, Agha Hassan and his adherents stood under the English banner and, in gratitude for their faithful service, received a residence in Bombay with a lifetime pension. He was granted the hereditary title "Aga Khan" (literally "Khan-owner").
By the beginning of the XX century. The Ismailis had the most influential positions in India, where such major political figures as Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Imam Aga Khan III emerged from their midst. The son of a Gujarati merchant Khoja, M.A. Jinnah received a law degree in London and then practiced as a lawyer in his homeland. From 1906 he was associated with the moderate wing of the Indian National Congress. In parallel, Jinnah took part in the activities of the Muslim League. On the eve and during the First World War, he advocated the unity of Muslims and Hindus, which he considered as a guarantee of a successful anti-colonial struggle. Becoming the leader of the Muslim League in 1934 (in 1921 Jinnah withdrew from the National Congress, considering it too radical an organization and condemning the campaigns of civil disobedience conducted by M. Gandhi), he demanded the independence of India 21 . However, during the Second World War, Jinnah leaned towards those Muslim circles who insisted on the separation of Muslims and the creation of their own state. Jinnah supported the theory of "two nations" in India - Hindus and Muslims, which is based on religious principle. Under his leadership, in 1940, the league put forward a demand to separate from India areas with a Muslim population and establish the Islamic state of Pakistan on their basis. After the partition of India in 1947, MA Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan, where he is revered as a "great leader" and "father of the nation" 22 .
18 "Caste in India". M. 1965, p. 240.
19 In 1838, England severed diplomatic relations with Iran because of its refusal to conclude an unequal trade agreement and withdraw troops from the Herat Khanate, which was a springboard for British expansion into Central Asia and the Caspian Sea basin.
20 H. Algar. The Revolt of Aga Khan Mahalotti and the Transferance of the Ismaili Imamat to India. "Studia Islamica", 1969, No. 29.
21 S. F. Levin. Organization of the Ismaili bourgeoisie in Pakistan. "Short Communications" of the Asian Peoples' Institute. T. 71. 1964.
22 A. M. Dyakov. The national question and British imperialism in India. M. 1948; Yu. V. Gankovsky, L. R. Gordon-Polonskaya. History of Pakistan. M. 1961.
The political activity of Aga Khan III reflected the dual nature of the Muslim bourgeoisie of India, with which the Yemailite elite is associated. The Aga Khan belonged to the wealthy landowning milieu of the rulers of Sindh. At the age of 8, he became a Nizari imam, from 1906 he served as chairman of the Muslim League, from which he left in 1913 due to its partial left. Interested in preserving the feudal institutions that made the imam privileged, he supported the British colonial authorities. At the same time, his connection with Bombay business circles, which belonged predominantly to the Khoja, forced him to support the moderately nationalist program of the Muslim bourgeoisie, which demanded the creation of a separate state. They wrote about the Aga Khan that he was "a staunch supporter of English rule in India, which he considers a boon for the Indian peoples. During recent unrest ... he addressed the words of exhortation to Muslims and Hindus, pointing out their madness, the immaturity of aspirations for independence , on the necessity and salvation of British domination" 23 . Since 1950, the Aga Khan has been a supporter of the idea of creating Islamistan as a vast Muslim state in the Near and Middle East under the auspices of British imperialism. Aga Khan III is also known as a reformer of the Ismaili community in the bourgeois spirit, the ideologist of "Islamic modernism", the author of works devoted to the propaganda of Islam.
The achievement of political independence by many countries in Asia and Africa forced the Ismaili leadership to change tactics. In an effort to adapt Islam to modern conditions and strengthen their position in the young liberated states, its leaders began in every possible way to emphasize the supposedly supra-class and supra-state nature of their organization, its "apolitical nature" and the purely entrepreneurial nature of its activities, condemned colonialism and racism, and defended the political course of independent Africans. -Asian countries. Thanks to flexible leadership, the Ismailis remain to this day the most influential branch of Islam in developing countries.
As in the past, there is currently no single organization uniting all Ismaili sects and subsects. In terms of their importance and degree of influence, the communities of Nizari, Mustalites and Druzes stand out. Nizaris make up the vast majority of Ismailis (approximately 12 to 20 million people). Nizaris living in Muslim countries with a predominant number of Sunnis, due to fear of persecution, often hide their true identity. They live in 22 countries of Asia and Africa, including Iran, Syria, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, the states of East Africa, South Africa, as well as the USSR (Turkmenistan, Tajikistan) and China (Xinjiang). From 1841, India was their main center, and after its partition in 1947, Pakistan. Their organization is still marked by strict centralization and a complex hierarchy of degrees of initiation. Unquestioning obedience to imams, whose power is practically unlimited, remains characteristic.
The leading role in the leadership of the Nizari communities belongs to the big bourgeoisie, people from the Khoja caste. Her interests are also reflected by the current spiritual leader of the Nizari, Prince Shah Karim Aga Khan IV, who became the 49th Ismaili Imam in 1957 at the age of 21 and received his title from his grandfather, Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III. Adherents of the Aga Khan in various parts of the world revere him as a "living god", make pilgrimages to him and pay tribute. The spiritual ruler of the Ismailis, however, devotes most of his time to purely worldly affairs. The owner of numerous palaces, yachts, villas, the owner of a huge fortune (not less than 200 million dollars) 24, Aga Khan is a major entrepreneur, has business interests in many countries of the world and is associated with British and American monopolies. The grandiose speculation of the Aga Khan in land plots in Sardinia, where, on his initiative, a modern fashionable resort was created, received wide publicity. Sardinia for the Aga Khan became the same source of enrichment as Monte Carlo - for the Greek multimillionaire Onassis and his heir
23 See L.I. Klimovich. Decree. cit., p. 143.
nicknames 25 . Aga Khan spends a lot of money on horse races and equestrian sports (he received 9 stud farms and 240 horses from his father) 26 . In terms of lifestyle, interests and socio-political role, Aga Khan IV differs from his predecessors, typical Persian feudal lords. He graduated from the closed aristocratic school Le Rosy and Harvard University, is active. Paris is his permanent residence 27 . Aga Khan IV strives to follow the course of his predecessor, during whose reign the Ismaili bourgeoisie took leading positions in a number of countries in Asia and Africa. He improved the structure of Nizari organizations, making it even more flexible and manageable.
Another major Ismaili subsect is the Mustalites. They do not have such a strictly centralized organization, retain more patriarchal and feudal elements, are themselves more conservative and traditional caste prejudices are stronger in their environment. Now in the countries of Asia and Africa there are approximately 500-700 thousand Mustalites, mainly in India and Pakistan, where they belong to the Bohra. Some of them live in Yemen, Egypt, Somalia, East African countries, Hong Kong, about 200 people live in Spain 28 . E the beginning of the XX century. The dominant position among the Mustalites was occupied by the Bokhra elite, whose current head, Muhammad Burkhanuddin, like Aga Khan IV, showed himself to be a protege of the big bourgeoisie, but not as consistently and clearly as the Europeanized Nizari imam.
The third Ismaili sect, the Druze, enjoys less influence. At present, there are about 300,000 of them living mainly in Lebanon and Syria, 3% - in Jordan, the rest - in Israel, where this Muslim community has received official recognition 29 . The Lebanese Druze are now part of the Progressive Socialist Party of K. Jumblatt.
Non-compliance with the most common Muslim rituals, even some neglect of them, bringing to the fore purely practical tasks, along with unquestioning obedience of ordinary members of the community to the instructions of imams, make Ismaili organizations flexible and mobile. No wonder they are often called "a state within a state." Indeed, they have their own administrative division, their own laws, their own court and their own calendar, and have their own material resources. Believing Ismailis donate 1/10 of their income to the needs of the organization, make valuable gifts and voluntary awards to imams for various events in their lives: birth, wedding, etc. The amount of awards among the Khojas of East Africa reaches an average of 100 East African shillings, and among the Bohrs they are charged twice a year (approximately from 5 to 21 shillings) 30 . In 1935, 1946 and 1954, when the "golden", "diamond" and "platinum" jubilees of the Aga Khan III were celebrated, the Ismailis weighed the imam, putting gold, diamonds and platinum instead of weights, which they then presented to the "living god". The centuries-old donation collection system allows the ruling elite of the sect to lead a fabulously wealthy lifestyle and receive enormous profits from the capital put into circulation. Although a lot of money is spent on the internal needs of the community (social security, insurance) and, in general, the standard of living of ordinary Ismailis is relatively high, the gulf separating the Ismaili leadership and the main mass of believers is large and widens every year. But due to the demagogic statements of the imams about the "identity of interests" of the entire community and the "spirit of brotherhood" supposedly reigning in it, as well as due to traditions, social contradictions within the sect are leveled.
From the environment of the Ismaili leadership, many public and political figures came forward, speaking in the international arena. Aga Khan III was at one time chairman of the League of Nations. The father of the current Nizari Imam, Prince Ali-hai in 1958 - 1960. represented Pakistan at the UN. The uncle of the Aga Khan IV, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, has been the UN High Commissioner for Refugees since December 1965.
25 W. Frischauer. The Aga Khans. L. 1970, p. 275.
26 "Jeune Afrique" (Tunis), 1967, no. 353, p. 31. " "Who's Who". L. 1972.
28 "Science and Religion", 1974, N 6, p. 69.
29 "Religion in the Middle East". Cambridge. 1969, pp. 330, 345.
30 "Islam in Africa". N. Y. 1969, p. 159.
tsev. He directly participated in the settlement of a number of acute international conflicts, contributing to the reconciliation of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, ending the civil war in Sudan between the Muslim North and the Christian South. In 1971, Sadruddin Aga Khan put forward his candidacy for the post of UN Secretary General.
The contacts of the top Ismailis with the British monopolies, bourgeois transformations, a kind of Reformation in the sect in the first half of the 20th century, the reorganization of caste institutions led to the fact that the Khoja and Bokhra from medieval merchants turned into representatives of the modern bourgeoisie, and their top is closely connected with monopoly capital. The Ismailis had commercial, credit, educational and other organizations 31 . In India, Pakistan, the former British East Africa, the Ismailis created a network of financial corporations, cooperative societies and joint-stock companies that helped to strengthen the economic role of the community in the countries of Asia and Africa and provided soft loans and loans to Ismaili entrepreneurs. The funds collected by the Nizaris on the occasion of the anniversaries of the Aga Khan III are used to operate large caste enterprises of the Khoja, whose homeland was East Africa. Such are the Jubilee Insurance Company (1935) and the Diamond Jubilee Trust (1946). In addition to large private Hodja firms, "jubilee" corporations financed caste cooperative banks, credit, commercial and housing societies. In 1956, the Diamond Jubilee Trust alone subsidized 35 of the 40 Khoja caste businesses in East Africa. At the initiative of Karim Aga Khan IV, the Industrial Promotion Services Corporation was created. In her reign, the Aga Khan selects young people with a university education. It provides financing for industrial enterprises in various countries of Asia and Africa, giving preference to states with a capitalist orientation. The total investment in the corporation is $10 million; 50% of them - the share of the Aga Khan 33 .
Most of the Khoja and Bohra credit enterprises are cooperative societies owned by local communities. Until recently, there were about 40 such cooperatives in East Africa. At each local council in charge of the affairs of the Ismaili community in different countries, economic advisory committees have been created, which are entrusted with the task of monitoring the economic situation in the country: industry, trade, business 34 .
Bohra and Khoja, like representatives of other Muslim castes, still adhere to special traditions in trade and usury transactions, in keeping business books. Mutual support and philanthropy, characteristic of the Indian merchant castes (not only the Bohra and Khoja), have taken new forms among the Ismailis and are manifested in various spheres of public life. Thus, in India, Pakistan, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, they have established schools, hospitals, and a wide social security network (charitable foundations, orphanages, etc.). In various countries, the Ismailis built many "Aga Khan schools", modern teacher and technology colleges with well-equipped laboratories and qualified teachers (such are the schools in Bombay, Karachi, Dar es Salaam, Kampala, Mombasa). The Ismailis have good medical care. Each community has a treatment center where you can get medical advice and medical assistance. The largest hospitals (for example, the Aga Khan Hospital in Nairobi, about 20 hospitals in Karachi) were built at the expense of the Ismailis and are financed by them.
In the large cities of East Africa, where the housing problem is very acute, the Ismailis have organized many housing cooperatives and building societies 35 . All of them are completely controlled by the Ismaili bourgeoisie, which uses this circumstance to strengthen its position and influence. On custom-
31 S. F. Levin. On the evolution of Muslim trading castes in connection with the development of capitalism (on the example of Bohr, Meman and Khoja). "Castes in India", pp. 234 - 235.
32 Ibid., p. 245.
33 W. Frischauer. Op. cit., p. 253.
34 "Commonwealth Journal" (London), 1961, No. 1, p. 28.
35 Castes in India, p. 251.
On the basis of the Khoja and Bohra, public and cultural and educational organizations, libraries, clubs, and student unions arose. They were created from community funds and served the members of the community. The Ismailis have their own periodicals. Since 1923, the weekly "Ismaili" has been published in English and Gujarati. Several dozens of newspapers and magazines of Khoja and Bohra are published in different cities of India, Pakistan, East African countries and distributed among members of the sect 36 . They serve as a means of ideological and political influence on the bulk of the Ismailis. On the whole, this entire socio-economic and "cultural" program of modern Ismailism serves quite definite class and ideological goals, allowing better maneuvering in the changing situation.
The position of the Ismailis in African countries is very specific. The Ismaili community here is relatively small: about 750,000 Nizaris 37 and about 9,000 Bohrs 38 . Most lived in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, a small number - in Zaire, South Africa, Mozambique and the Malagasy Republic (all of them come from Hindustan - Bohra and Khoja). The closed nature of their organization, which continues to maintain the form of a secret society, the peculiarities of religious practice and the belonging of the bulk of the Ismailis to another race put them in a special position among the indigenous population of African states. The Ismaili community in East Africa has a long history. Shiite refugees settled here, fleeing persecution by the Sunnis. In 1748 the first Bohras - blacksmiths, tinkers, goldsmiths - settled in Zanzibar 39 . In addition, when East Africa and part of India were part of the Portuguese colonial empire, many Indians moved to Africa. By the 20th century England, which had turned India into a colony, secured the East African territories for itself. To exploit their economic resources, the British authorities needed people with certain skills and specialties. Therefore, they encouraged immigration from India to Africa, providing settlers with preferential terms. The Ismaili bourgeoisie was attracted to East Africa because the competition of British capital was weaker here than in India and Pakistan. Thus, East Africa became an important area of commercial and entrepreneurial activity of the Ismailis. Tens of millions of East African pounds were invested in industrial enterprises in Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar - textile, chemical, machine-building and others. The Ismaili bourgeoisie pressed here not only the weak African national bourgeoisie, but also other competitors (from Asia).
The position of the Ismaili community in the countries of East Africa was directly influenced by the patronage of the British administration. This determined the role of the Ismailis in the African colonies of England as a kind of intermediate link in the exploitation of the indigenous population. Being a privileged stratum of East African society during the colonial period and enjoying the greatest advantages over other Muslim sects and organizations, 40 the Ismailis, at the same time, never had real political power here. The top community, acting in concert with the British imperialists, restrained the political activity of ordinary Ismailis. And while maintaining isolation in cultural and religious terms, she failed to unite with either Muslims of Indo-Pakistani origin, or with Africans. There were only a few cases of participation of Ismailis in political organizations that acted with anti-colonial programs. Thus, in the 1950s in Zanzibar, the Ismailis, together with the Hindus, created the Indian National Association (as opposed to the Muslim League, which united Indo-Pakistani Muslims) 41 . In general, the members of the sect were engaged in the chief
36 Ibid., p. 253.
37 "Jeune Afrique", 1967, N 353, p. 32.
38 "Islam in Africa", p. 233.
39 S. I. Trimingham. Op. cit., p. 105.
40 In 1924, the Ismailis were officially recognized in Tanganyika as a community "distinct in law and custom from all Muslims" (The British Journal of Sociology, 1971, N 4, p. 366).
41 "Political Science Quarterly", 1962, No. 1, p. 83.
otherwise cultural, educational, charitable or missionary activities.
When the intensity of the political struggle began to herald the imminence of liberation from imperialist domination, the tactics of the Ismaili imams changed. Condemning in words colonialism and racism, flirting with the leaders of the national liberation movement and using their material resources, the leadership of the community began to prepare it for work in the new conditions. Long before the independence of East African countries (the political independence of Tanganyika was proclaimed on December 9, 1961, Uganda - October 9, 1962, Zanzibar - December 10, 1963, Kenya - December 12, 1963), almost all Ismailis, following the instructions of their leaders, accepted the citizenship of these countries. Since there is a significant stratum of the Asian population, for a number of reasons remaining subjects of Great Britain, India, Pakistan or Bangladesh, this step by the Ismailis put them in a more advantageous position and, as it were, equated politically with the local population.
Much attention has been paid to the structure of Ismaili organizations. The Nizari community has undergone changes to a greater extent. According to the constitution approved by Agahai in August 1962, the affairs of the Nizari community in East Africa are governed by provincial and legislative councils in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, which are subordinate to the Supreme Council for East Africa, based in Mombasa. Council members are appointed by the Aga Khan, who is the head of the community. In an effort to enlist the support of the Tanzanian government, the Ismailis formed a unified council for Tanzania, centered in Dar es Salaam. This step of the Hoxha was approved by President J. Nyerere 42 . In order to unify the rituals of African, Asian and Middle Eastern Ismailis, as well as to convince orthodox Sunnis and Shiites to recognize the Ismailis as full-fledged Muslims, in 1956 the Aga Khan published a new prayer book with the texts of prayers in Arabic and their translations into English and Gujarati 43 . Local organizations of the Khoja, including all adult males, have a center where council institutions are located, a worship hall, a library with a reading room, and meeting rooms 44 .
In terms of cultural and everyday life, the Ismailis remain the same closed community as before, and are considered by the local population as strangers. Although the Ismailis are increasingly moving away from centuries-old traditions (this primarily concerns women, who now receive education and a profession on an equal basis with men), they practically do not assimilate with the local population. The Ismailis do not allow intermarriage between Bohra and Khoja, and marriages with Africans, called chotola in East Africa, cause discontent. The Ismailis choose wives from their own caste, and if they do not find any in East Africa, they go to India or Pakistan for this purpose. Compared to the African population, whose standard of living is still low, the Ismailis are in a more privileged position. Thanks to social benefits provided from community funds, they have more opportunities to receive education, medical care, and housing 45 . In addition, almost half of the Africans in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are adherents of local traditional beliefs and about 40% are Christians; only 18% profess Shiite and Sunni Islam 46 . Ismailism did not spread among the local African population. Thus, there are only 150 Ismaili Africans in Uganda 47 .
The strength of the economic positions that the Ismailis have secured for themselves in a number of African states is largely related to the nature of their activities. After all, most of the liberated countries of Africa are more willing to receive assistance
42 "Islam in Africa", p. 249.
43 Ibid., p. 153.
44 Ibid., p. 249.
45 After the implementation of the "House for All" project, developed by the Ismaili leadership for the countries of East Africa, by the beginning of the 70s, almost every Ismaili family became the owner of a house or apartment, which (like other events of this kind) closely connected the lower classes of the community with its top .
46 See G. A. Shpazhnikov. Religions of African countries. M. 1967.
47 S. I. Trimingham. Op. cit., p. 105.
not from this or that bourgeois state, but from some organization. This kind of assistance has a tinge of charity and does not make the country dependent on foreign capital. Nevertheless, the Ismaili bourgeoisie had to maneuver, and the Aga Khan advised his followers to invest not in large, but in medium-sized enterprises, which was associated with a desire to disguise the monopolistic nature of their activities. The leadership of the community took a course on cooperation with the governments of East African countries. In 1972, together with the governments of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, the Ismailis created the East African Industrial Corporation, which provides funding for the facilities put into operation 48 . In the late 1950s, many Ismaili-owned schools and hospitals were transferred to the state, although they continue to receive material assistance from the community.
The Ismailis are now in the most favorable situation in Kenya, whose ruling circles encourage the growth of private capitalist enterprises and create favorable conditions for their activities. Here the Ismailis control more than 1/5 of industrial production, 1/8 of agricultural production, 60% of retail trade and have a stake in banking. Under the control of the Aga Khan is the largest newspaper "Daily Nation", published in Nairobi. The repeated measures taken in Kenya to "Africanize" the administrative apparatus and trade practically did not affect the Ismailis 49 . During the visit of the Aga Khan to Mombasa in December 1973, he presented President J. Kenyatta with a check for 5 thousand pounds sterling for the construction of a hospital in Gatunda, the residence of Kenyatta, and the head of the Ismailis presented a check of 2.5 thousand pounds to the President's wife for construction orphanage 50 . The spiritual head of the Ismailis, who frequently visits Kenya, where he spent his youth, is always received with great pomp and at the highest level.
The Ismailis occupy a slightly different position in Tanzania. The adoption in 1967 by the ruling party of the African National Union of Tanganyika (TANU) of the program document - the Arusha Declaration, which outlined the development of Tanzania along a non-capitalist path, put the Ismailis in a difficult position, because in their mass they were capitalist owners, against whom the edge of social transformations was directed. The "Africanization" and nationalization of the economy affected Indo-Pakistani and Arab entrepreneurs, among whom there were many Ismailis. In 1971, after the adoption of laws on the nationalization of private property, including private houses worth over 100 thousand East African shillings, the outflow of the Asian population from Tanzania began for the first time. However, J. Nyerere stated: “I am absolutely sure that if we make a distinction between exploiting Indians and exploited Indians and if we treat the exploited in the same way as other workers, then they will help us to implement the policy socialism and independence" 51 . The government insists on the active participation of Ismailis in self-help programs and their entry into TANU 52 . Some Ismailis have taken important government positions in Tanzania. Nevertheless, the exodus of Ismailis from the country - engineers, doctors, teachers - affects social life, since Tanzania does not yet have enough qualified personnel of its own. In this regard, J. Nyerere issued a warning about the danger associated with too hasty "Africanization", which is painfully affecting the country's economy 53 .
In Uganda, the position of the Ismailis changed after the military coup in January 1971, when the government of General I. Amin came to power. Its activities contribute to the growth of the political role of Muslim Africans. Amin achieved the unification of all Muslim organizations in the country and their subordination to the Supreme Muslim Council. The Islamization of the army is taking place. As a result,
48 "Islam in Africa", p. 161.
49 S. Kulik. Modern Kenya. M. 1972, p. 96.
50 "East African Standard" (Nairobi), 15.XII.3973.
51 "The African Communist" (London), 1973, no. 53, p. 70.
52 "The British Journal of Sociology", 1971. N 4, p. 374.
53 L. A. Demkina. National minorities in East Africa. M. 1972, p. 112.
my since 1972 "Africanization" retail trade has almost completely passed into the hands of Muslim Africans. In September 1972, the government decided to expel from Uganda 80 thousand immigrants from India and Pakistan, some of whom were British subjects and held key positions in finance and trade. These measures, however, did not affect the Ismailis - engineers, doctors and lawyers, who were forbidden to leave the country.
Now the leadership of the sect is looking for new places to invest capital, including some West African states. So, in the Republic of the Ivory Coast, the Hodja bourgeoisie launched an active activity (since 1965, it built the largest business center "Hyp al-Khayat" and the Filtirak plant, in which 750 million francs were invested). Nizari organizations financed the construction of an agricultural goods factory and a biscuit factory 54 . Yet Ismailism is perceived by Africans as an alien phenomenon. This is exacerbated by the fact that the Ismailis, having taken the citizenship of the country in which they live, remain loyal to their religious leaders located in other countries. It is not for nothing that their position is compared with that of Catholics in nineteenth-century America, when they were treated with suspicion because they were spiritually subordinate to the Pope. The further secularization of public life in the countries of East Africa (the church is already separated from the state in them), the struggle to eradicate religious prejudices pose new problems for the Ismaili sect.
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The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, said:
The Jews were divided into 71 sects, of which one will go to heaven, and 70 to hell. Christians are divided into 72 sects, of which 71 will go to hell, and one - to heaven. My followers will be divided into 73 sects, of which one will go to heaven and 72 to hell.
Ibn Maje. (Hadith narrated from the words of Awf ibn Malik)
In Shiism, 5 main directions are distinguished: these are Kaysanites, Zaydis, Imamis, Ismailis and "extreme" (Gulat, or Alawites). Of these, the "moderate" wing includes the Imamites-Jafarites and Zaidis. Their teaching is in many respects similar to the main provisions of orthodox Islam.
Moderate 1
Zaidis. Zeid is one of the sons of the Imam after Ali and only, the current originated in the 8th century. Peculiarities -
1. the caliph's power does not have to pass from father to son, the main thing is that from the Alid family, it turns out, an elected person, albeit from a narrow number of persons, although others clearly have an automaton by inheritance.
2. Zeid was respectable, but without secret knowledge, an ordinary person, here is solidarity with the Sunnis. For the Zaidis, the imam is the protector of the Shiites, but not infallible, this is a political figure, not a religious one.
3. Usually the Shiites curse everyone, but the Zaidis only curse Uthman (Abu Bakr and Umar are respected).
4. Shiites recognize temporary marriage, it is popular, a relic of pre-Islamic traditions: for a certain price, a woman is “bought” for a while, circumventing the rule of 4 wives. BUT the Zaidis as an institution do not recognize this, because it is a hidden form of prostitution.
5. Avoid d O predestination and prefer the free will of man.
In the first centuries of the existence of Islam, it was the Zaidis who were popular and active - in Yemen, Iran, and so on. Now only in Yemen, but even there no more than 40%. They are far from Iran, already by religion they cannot have an alliance, they are closest to the Sunnis. and if there is a massacre, then only by clan, clan, tribe. The religious doctrine of the Zaidis is so close to orthodox Sunni Islam that they are often not classified as Shiites, but are called small maskhab at 4 main theological schools of orthodoxy. They founded the state of the Idrisids (8-10 centuries), on the territory of modern. Morocco. This state was later annexed to Caliphate of Cordoba. They also came to power in Tabaristan (Iran) in the 9th century, and in the north of Yemen.
Moderate 2
Imamites- the most numerous branch, mainly in Iran.
1. The Twelvers recognize 12 imams from the Ali family. Moreover, the Shiite Imami should recognize them not by personal qualities, but because of the blood connection.
2. In the first centuries they were not active, but contributed to the development of the Shia doctrine, the Abbasids (750-1256) dissociated themselves from the Shiites and were able to come to power.
3. Compromise formula - Ali is the best of people. Why was this policy born? Shiism was the banner under which all the peasant uprisings in the east took place.
4. The Shiites have a tradition that each of the 12 imams died as a martyr, but in fact - a maximum of three. But the pressure on Shiite imams was in fact, at the end of the 9th century, the 12th last Shiite imam miraculously disappears for 6-9 years, therefore, the “hidden imam”, sort of climbed into underground structures. Allah took such good care of him, securing him, but he is with us, invisibly managing affairs.
5. Allah mb deprived people of imams for sins, then 60 years of the Little Concealment, when there were deputies of the hidden imam, then they also disappeared, the latter did not even begin to appoint a successor, Shiite uprisings began in the east. The big cover-up to this day. It is supposed to end with the return of the Mahdi.
6. Mahdi - This is not a canonized figure, like a mission among the Jews. Sunnis have a semi-mythical figure, it will new jesus, there is an idea of him as a person. Appear among the illiterate bottoms. For Shiites, Mahdi is the 12th hidden imam, he will appear and destroy all tyrants, paradise will come for the pious. The Shiites strongly believed. With pathos.
7. Now Shiism is Imami in Afghanistan (15% of the Hazaras,) Iran, Saud Aravi in the east (15%), these are Lezgins, Tats in Dagestan, in Bahrain (80-90%), Lebanon (40%). Sunnis recognize them because they are not radicals. The imams of the Imamis were not ascetics. specificity in the approach. Shia hadiths, strong and weak. Confirming Ali's claim to power. Appeared later than the Sunni.
Radicals 1
1. They believe that the imam has a divine manifestation, i.e. manifestation, the god in the face of each of the Alids manifested itself, i.e. they are saints. The Sunnis do not have this, because it turns out that you share the essence of Allah. And he is indivisible.
2. More. Shiites are forced to use the Koran, but Sunni. Then - They say that there are 115 suras about Ali, they and the prophet -2 luminaries, put them on the level of Muhammad. They interpret the Koran willfully, allegorically. For example, about Musa: The Cow is Aisha, and Musa said, kill the Cow-Aisha, because she opposed Ali.
3. There is a notion that there were closed gates of ijtihad, ( Ijtihad- the activity of the theologian in the study and solution of issues of the theological and legal complex, the system of principles, arguments, methods and techniques used by the theologian-mujt A Hidom, religious creativity based on the Koran.) That is, everything is interpreted and the topic is closed. And the Shiites believe that they have the right to further interpret.
4. Shiites do not eat food cooked by non-Shiites (well, almost kosher. But not very relevant in the 21st century).
5. believe that the war can be waged against the Sunnis too! There is also the clergy as a clear corporation with its own strict vertical, when the occupation of one or another rung on this ladder requires special qualities, for example, Ayatollah.
Radicals 2. Extreme Shiites
Ismailis.
In the 8th century, after the death of the 6th imam of the Shiites, Jafar al-Sadiq, the majority accepted his youngest son Musa al-Kazim as the new imam, but some of them recognized his deceased son Ismail as the imam (this sect is named after him), and after him his son, later the Ismailis began to declare hidden imams of all his descendants. The connection of hidden imams located in certain sacred spheres with the community was carried out by the so-called. commissioners who allegedly received orders from the hidden imam.
(Taking advantage of the weakness of the late Abbasid caliphs, the Ismailis came to power in Ifriqiya (Tunisia). Then they conquered the entire north of Africa and Sicily, and in 969 they established control over Egypt and moved their capital to Cairo. Then they subjugated Yemen, Hijaz and Syria The resulting vast state - the Fatimid Caliphate. The power in this state was of a mystical nature, as in all Shiite states. However, after coming to power, their rulers turned into tyrants and lost the trust of the people. The advent of the Fatimids to power finally dispelled all the illusions of the people regarding the grace of heaven which the Shiites promised if they came to power. Active resistance began to these usurpers. The Fatimid state of the Ismailis, like the activities of all Shiite and Kharijite groups, brought many troubles to Muslims in the political aspect. As a result of their rule, they weakened and split the Muslim world so much, that Europe hit the Muslims, which they had been expecting for a long time. In 1091 the Fatimids surrendered Sicily to the Normans, in 1099 Jerusalem and other cities of Palestine were surrendered to the crusaders. Because of them, Muslim Spain, having lost its historical ties with North Africa, to which it turned in case of danger, became a victim of the Reconquista. By 1085, the course of events led Europe to the fact that the fear of the Arabs was somewhat weakened, and the determination to throw them a military challenge increased. The Shiite rulers, acting against the Abbasids and all orthodox Muslims, concluded agreements with the European powers on joint actions against the Abbasids. By the way, Shiite rulers performed similar actions in later history. For example, when the Shiite Jafarite dynasty of the Safavids came to power in Iran in the 16th century, they unleashed a war with the Ottomans. Moreover, the Safavid Jafarites ( kyzylbashi) committed this treachery in the most difficult political conditions for Muslims. The fact is that the Christian rulers of Europe, blessed by the Roman popes, hatched plans for a second invasion of Muslim countries after the Crusades. In 1492, the last Muslim state, the Nasrid emirate, was destroyed in Spain. After that, the persecution of the Muslims of Spain began. They were forcibly converted to Christianity, but most Muslims remained faithful to Islam and professed their faith in secret. They were called Moriscos. In this regard, they were severely persecuted by the Inquisition. They were forbidden to give Arabic names to their children, Arabic books were burned, tens of thousands of Moriscos were martyred for their faith at the stakes of the Inquisition. Finally, in 1609-1610, they were evicted from Spain to northern Africa.)
The Ismailis were prominent in the Middle Ages. The doctrine is interesting. They borrowed a lot from Neoplatonism, a philosophical movement in Byzantium, and Hinduism, a syncretic synthesis of Islam with the ideas of ancient and Middle Eastern philosophies. In particular, they recognize the material incarnation of God on earth. According to these points they are "out" of Islam. It is believed that Allah has a hypostasis, a world mind, he gave birth to 7 prophets, and Ismail - the 7th. The goal of a person is to achieve harmony with the whole world, otherwise you will constantly spin in a circle, spiritual perfection, as in Buddhism. They were able to create a caliphate in Egypt - the Fatimids. There are in Iran, in the Pamirs, in India. They have always been a minority, now they are almost gone. They can safely be called the 1st well-conspiratorial Masonic lodge in the world. Later, these principles were borrowed from the Ismailis by the crusaders, among whom the first Masonic lodges were formed.
Subversive activities among the Ismailis were carried out by preachers - Dais. They conducted dawat - propaganda of Ismailism. According to their beliefs, a "hidden" imam was at the head of the dawat, who supposedly conveyed his "divine" commands to the dai. Dai had assistants - nakibs. They penetrated into the midst of Muslims and started provocative disputes with the followers of orthodox Sunni Islam. Above this complex hierarchy stood the Bab (gate). Even the highest representatives of propaganda did not know Baba. He was known only to the "hidden" imam and he communicated with followers only through special proxies. Like Freemasons, the members of the hierarchy did not know each other. Thanks to this system, the Ismailis have become a real cancerous tumor on the body of the Islamic world.
Alawites, or Gulats. And now there is. Syria (10%) - 12 million. Astral cults, belief in resettlement, elements of Christianity. It is believed that once the souls of people were stars. They read the Gospel, do astrology, and are initiated into hidden knowledge, and now it is hidden, one can get into the community only by birth. The ruling minority in Syria just! (Assad).
None of the Shiite groups that came to power in different countries at different times was able to demonstrate the advantages of the Shiite model. Their rulers, who came to power as a result of anti-Umayyad and then anti-Abbasid activities, turned into tyrants and were completely unpopular among the people. As a result of numerous troubles and during the periods of their rule, the Muslim world weakened and lost ground in front of its external enemies.
Recently, two books were published in Russian on the ideology and history of the Ismailis, who are now widely known throughout the world, thanks to the active charitable work of their Imam Aga Khan IV, whose fund has long and successfully been operating in many, including very explosive, regions the globe.
His community was well integrated into the structure of the modern world and strongly Westernized in the 20th century.
First of all, it is necessary to clarify the terms. Ismailis are followers of one of the largest branches of Shiite Islam. In the middle of the VIII century. they recognized the sixth Shia Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, his eldest son Ismail, as the heir, in contrast to the majority of Shiites who recognized Musa al-Kazim as his heir. Later, when the Ismaili Fatimid dynasty formed its caliphate with its capital in Cairo, a new split occurred: after the death of Caliph al-Mustansir in 1094, part of the Ismailis supported his son Mustali, and the other supported his eldest son Nizar. Mustali became the official Fatimid caliph, and Nizar was forced to flee to Alexandria. There he, in turn, was proclaimed caliph. As Farhad Daftari notes, “The proclamation of Nizar as both caliph and imam in Alexandria is confirmed by the discovery in 1994 of a gold dinar minted in 1095.” (Daftari, p.118). In 1095, Nizar was defeated, captured and executed.
However, his rights were recognized by the Ismailis of Northern Iran, who at that time were headed by a prominent dai (preacher) Hasan al-Sabbah (born 1050s - d. 1124), who created a small independent state there in 1090 with a center in Alamut. This is how the Nizari movement appeared in Ismailism, today headed by Imam Aga Khan IV. During the era of the Crusades, Europeans began to call the Nizaris "Assassins". This term acquired a negative connotation, and "assassin" began to mean "murderer" in a number of European languages. The very word "assassin" goes back to the Arabic "hashish" (using hashish). At that time, it was believed that in a state of drug intoxication, the Nizaris committed political assassinations. The spread of this legend in Europe was strongly promoted by the famous traveler Marco Polo (1254-1324), who wrote about how the Mountain Elder lured young men into his garden, the so-called earthly paradise, and turned them into assassins. “Young men will wake up in the palace (the next day - M.R.), but they are not happy that they would never leave paradise of their own free will. They go to the Elder and, revering him as a prophet, humbly bow to him; and the Elder asks them where they came from. From paradise, the young men answer and describe everything that is there, as if in paradise, about which Muhammad spoke to their ancestors; and those who were not there hear all this, and they want to go to heaven; they are ready to die, if only to get to paradise; can't wait for the day to go there. If the Elder wants to kill one of the important ones, he will order to test and select the best of his assassins; he sends many of them to distant countries with orders to kill people; they go, and the order is carried out; whoever remains intact, he returns to the court, it happens that after the murder they are captured and killed themselves ”(Hodgson, p. 357).
This legend reflects the popular perception of the activities of Hasan al-Sabbah and his successors. Book M.J.S. Hodgson (1922-1968) is devoted to the ideology and history of this state. 1/ It was the first study that summarized the disparate information about the Nizaris and their creed and brought them together. The work of M.J.S. Hodgson is today recognized by classical experts. Its great scientific significance is also emphasized by the second author I am considering, Farhad Daftari (Daftari, p. 32).
One of the topics that M.J.S. Hodgson pays close attention to the use of individual terror by the Nizaris, primarily against high-ranking Sunni leaders during the period when they were led by Hasan al-Sabbah and his first successors. According to M.J.S. Hodgson, "at first the word" jihad "- a holy war - was used to denote individual terror, pursuing various religious and political goals in connection with the activities of the early Shiite groups. Among the early Shiites, this method of struggle was called “jihad kafi” (secret war) and was opposed to open frontier war. One extremist Shiite group was called "Hunnaq" (stranglers), because that was the favorite way of killing among its adherents. However, none of these groups has given terrorist killings so much political significance which they acquired from the Nizaris" (Hodgson, 91).
Obviously, this practice was caused, first of all, by the weakness of the political structures in the Sunni states of that time, mainly headed by Seljuk rulers, so the assassination of individual sultans, wazirs (prime ministers, in modern terms) or major military leaders often led to general destabilization , confusion and chaos in a particular region of the Muslim world. The Nizaris killed those military and civilian leaders who actively fought against them and opposed the spread of their doctrine. Sometimes it could be about self-defense and revenge. As F. Daftari notes, “Hasan al-Sabbah’s decision to turn murder into a tool to achieve military and political goals was, in essence, a response to the political fragmentation and military power of the Seljuk regime” (Daftari, p. 136).
In turn, M.J.S. Hodgson drew attention to the fact that "Ismaili killings differed from many of the killings that took place in Muslim general political life, not only in their less personal character, since they rarely served as a means of resolving personal disputes and individual rivalry between individuals, but also in their general entourage , since most often they were performed in public and sometimes almost in a theatrical setting: in a mosque, at the royal court. The Ismailis acted openly. They were almost never suspected of using poison" (Hodgson, 122).
A vivid example of such a theatrical murder is given in his comments by the scientific editor of the book, M.J.S. Hodgson A.G. Yurchenko, quoting the Armenian historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi: “One of the nobles named Orkhan, whose wife was the mother of the Sultan, especially oppressed the inhabitants of the city of Gandzak (Ganja - M.R.) - and not only Christians, but also Persians too - with large requisitions. He was killed in that city by mulehids (heretics, as the Nizari were called - M.R.), who had a habit of insidiously killing people. While this man (Orkhan - M.R.) was walking through the streets of the city, some people approached him, allegedly oppressed by someone and (wanting) to file a petition for rights. They showed him the paper they had in their hands and demanded with a cry: "Justice, justice." And when he stopped and wanted to ask who was oppressing them, they rushed at him from all sides and with the swords that they hid, kept with them, inflicted wounds on him and killed him. Thus, evil was destroyed by evil itself. And his killers were barely able to hit with arrows; they fled through the city and many were wounded by them: ”(Hodgson, p. 253-254).
Unfortunately, neither M.J.S. Hodgson and F. Daftary do not provide statistics on this terrorist practice. A relatively complete list of the victims of Ismaili individual terror is given in the work of the Russian historian L.V. Stroevoy "The Ismaili State in Iran in the 11th-13th centuries" (M., 1978). It is based on the data of the Persian historian of the XIV century. Rashid ad-Din, according to which during the reign of Hasan al-Sabbah (1090-1124) 49 people were killed, under his successors Kiya Buzurg Umid (1124-1138) - 12 people and under Muhammad ibn Kiya Buzurg Umid (1138-1162) - 14 people. “Thus, in 72 years the number of victims is 75 people. The lists (Rashid ad-Dina - M.R.) indicate the name and social status of the victim, the name of the killer, sometimes the name and nisba (genealogy - M.R.) of the killer or the number of persons who committed the murder, the place, month and year of the murder , in isolated cases - the motive for the murder ”(Stroeva, p. 148). So, according to the lists, 8 sovereigns were killed (of which 3 caliphs), 6 vazirs, 7 military leaders, 5 wali (regional governors), 5 rais (city governors), 5 muftis and 5 qazis (Muslim judges). In the late autumn of 1121, the commander-in-chief of the Fatimid caliphs, Afdal ad-Din, was killed, through whose fault he was deprived of the caliph's throne and the legitimate imam of the Nizari Nizar died (Stroeva, pp. 148-150).
As L.V. Stroeva, “the absolute number of Ismaili victims is not so great. It is much less than the number of people killed by the Ismailis in open battle”, while by the end of the period under review, individual terror “is significantly reduced and almost disappears” (Stroeva, p. 152). In general, both authors considered in the review come to a similar conclusion. Such a phenomenon as individual terror cannot be absolutized, but must be analyzed in a specific historical context. It is obvious that more often it is an instrument of the struggle of a minority, as was the case with the Ismailis, who at that time strengthened their statehood in a difficult and difficult confrontation with numerous Sunni rulers. Later, the Ismailis moved away from the practice of individual terror.
Another and perhaps the most important topic for understanding the characteristics of the Nizari community is their teaching about the imamate and the role of the imam in the community. M.J.S. Hodgson examines it in detail. For the Ismailis, the real presence of the imam in the world is extremely important, because, notes M.J.S. Hodgson, “the imam by his very nature is al-hujja, proof of God; but he is more than al-hujja, he is all forms of God. Therefore, one can see God through him, as one sees the sun through the light of the sun: To know the Imam is to know God, to see him is to see God, as far as God can be known or seen” (Hodgson, 172). Hasan al-Sabbah and his first successors called themselves dais (preachers), but the need to have their own imam was probably so great that the new sovereign of the Nizari Hasan II (1162-1166) proclaimed himself an imam, but not in the earthly, but in the spiritual sense, that is, in the highest heavenly reality (haqiqa), since he was not a descendant of the 4th Muslim caliph Ali, from whom the Shia imams traditionally traced their lineage. This happened at a time when the Nizaris realized that they would not be able to convince the rest of the Muslim world of the correctness of their creed. That is why Hassan II declared himself the spiritual descendant of Nizar and abolished the power of Sharia as a religious right and at the same time proclaimed himself Qa'im (Imam who brought the Resurrection) 2/, which, however, did not mean that the Day of Resurrection had come in Sunni, characteristic of most Muslims understanding of this meta-event, but in spiritual terms. The Nizaris during his reign came to realize their special religious path and abandoned the search for mutual understanding with the Sunnis and representatives of other areas of Shiism. From now on, all Nizari living on earth could "learn to know God directly, directly (as the Sufis did)" (Hodgson, 162). In turn, the rest of the Muslims, for whom, in the first place, the rejection of Sharia was unacceptable, began to call them mulhids (heretics).
The teachings of Hassan II were continued and developed by his son, Imam Muhammad II (1166-1210), who believed that “the goal of the world is to know and see God: and the only way to achieve this goal is to fully spiritual knowledge of the Imam. For the imam himself is the perfect revelation of God” (Hodgson, 170). It should be noted that the idea of the special role of the imam is characteristic of all Shiism, but, perhaps, it was the Nizari who developed it most prominently. In accordance with their creed, there is a “necessity to take for truth what a given imam proclaims, unlike any other” (Hodgson, p. 236). It is this circumstance that explains M.J.S. Hodgson the fact that the son of Muhammad II Hasan III (1210-1221) abandoned the radical views of his father and grandfather and restored the Sharia (Hodgson, 224-225).
The book by M.J.S. Hodgson helps the reader to understand the history of the formation of the Nizari community and the specifics of its worldview. In our days, when interest in Islam and its various currents has greatly increased, the publication of a book in Russian, in my opinion, is extremely useful. In the work, one can feel the keen interest of the author and his enthusiasm for the subject of research, which are involuntarily transferred to the reader.
Book by Farhad Daftari, head of department scientific research and publications of the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London, complements well the work of M.J.S. Hodgson. 3 / It is a consistent presentation of the history of Ismailism, and its various branches, and not just the Nizaris. The author managed to collect new materials that were not available to his predecessor. The book is valuable in terms of facts and clarification of a number of details. F. Daftari worked especially seriously with the materials and sources of the Nizari tradition proper. It is in this sense that the part of the book that is devoted to the history of the Nizari after the defeat of their state in Northern Iran by the Mongols in 1256 is very interesting. F. Daftari skillfully and conscientiously reconstructs this stage in the history of the Nizari. In my opinion, he convincingly shows that the central idea of the Nizari - relying on the authority of the imam - allowed this religious movement to survive, despite all the vicissitudes of its dramatic history, when at some point it seemed that it simply ceased to exist. After the death of their state, the Nizaris became close to the Sufis, but at the same time they kept their own traditions. As F. Daftari writes, as before, “for the Ismailis, the imam remained the only cosmic individual who concentrated in his personality the whole essence of being, a perfect microcosm, which could not be replaced by a less important mentor: The ontological position of the Nizari Ismaili imam as a representative of a truly cosmic essence was also an analogue of the “perfect man” (al-insan al-kamil) 4/ Sufis” (p. 172).
The latest period in the history of the Nizari is associated with the relocation of their Imam Aga Khan I from Iran to British India in 1842. Imam in 1957, headquartered in Aglamont (France). “The Imam maintains the well-defined community administration council system introduced by his grandfather (Aga Khan III – M.P.) and is expanding it to new territories in Europe, the USA and Canada, taking into account the significant emigration of his followers from East Africa and the Indian subcontinent to the West that began in the 70s. XX century” (Daftari, p.212). Today, the Aga Khan IV plays a role in his community similar to that of the Roman pope for Catholics, while striving to keep up with the times. So, notes F. Daftari, back in 1986, the imam officially promulgated the charter of his community, which is called the "Constitution of Shia Muslims Imami Ismailis" (Daftari, p. 213). This constitution, in many ways, modernizes the structure of community administration and significantly democratizes it.
At the end of his interesting and informative work, F. Daftari writes: “The Nizari Ismailis, a Muslim minority scattered in many countries, went through repression and religious persecution, almost unceasing from the time of the fall of Alamut until our time. Therefore, the Ismailis often resorted to an extended practice of concealment, presenting themselves either as Sufis, or Twelver Shiites, 5/, or as Sunnis or even Hindus. That the Nizaris have survived at all and are a progressive community with a distinct identity in the modern world is testament to the flexibility of their traditions, as well as their ability to adapt to modern conditions, thanks to the able and far-sighted leadership of their current Imams, the Agha Khans. Daftari, p.216). It is difficult to disagree with this conclusion. In the course of their history, the Nizaris have undergone a complex and tortuous evolution and have become one of the most dynamic and successful Muslim communities of our time, with a population of approximately 20 million today.
Marshall J. S. Hodgson. Order of the Assassins. (The Struggle of the Early Nizari Ismailis with the Islamic World). SPb., "Eurasia", 2004, 381 p.
Farhad Daftary. A Brief History of Ismailism. (Traditions of the Muslim community). M., Ladomir, 2003, 276 p.
Notes:
1/ Marshall G.S. Hodgson. The Order of Assassins. (The Struggle of the Early Nizari Ismailis against the Islamic World). University of Chicago, 1955.
2/ Ismaili beliefs about Qa’im are discussed in an earlier published by our journal article by Shin Nomoto “Revising Ismaili Christology in the light of the views of Abu Hatim al-Razi” - OZ, 2004,? 5, pp. 293-296.
3/Farhad Daftary. A Short History of the Ismailis (Traditions of a Muslim Community). Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
4/ For more on the Ismaili concept of the perfect or whole man, see Henry Corbin. Swedenborg and Esoteric Islam. West Chester, Pennsylvania, 1995, p.100-112. Interestingly, in the Christian tradition, views on this topic very close to Ismaili ones were developed by the Swedish thinker of the 18th century. Emmanuel Swedenborg, see ibid., pp. 74-83.
4/Farhad Daftary. A Short History of the Ismailis (Traditions of a Muslim Community). Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
5/ Twelver Shiites recognize 12 imams from the Ali family. Their 12th imam Muhammad "disappeared" or "hid" at a young age. The Twelvers proclaimed him a "hidden imam" and a mahdi (messiah), who in due time would return and fill the world with justice. Thus, unlike the Nizaris, the Twelvers do not recognize the Imams open to the world at the present time.
11.02.2018 18:43
Imagine that of all the sources devoted, for example, to Christianity or Islam, you only have access to the writings of the ideological rivals of these religious systems.
Will your understanding of these world religions be complete if it is based only on such texts? That is why the study of religious movements that were in opposition to the generally accepted dogma is a separate difficulty. This statement is applicable to the Ismaili community, which is quite significant for the history of Islam, because until recently we were only aware of writings that condemned this teaching. In addition, a whole circle of legends and traditions developed around the Ismailis, both in the Muslim world and in Europe. But how true were these stories?
Mausoleum of Imam Hussein in Karbala / photo source: wikipedia.org
Split after split
The first turmoil in the growing Muslim community, which began because of disagreements over the issue of succession to power, led to a split into two camps - supporters of the victorious Caliph Muawiyah, who later received the name Sunnis, and Ali's adherents, called Shiites. The latter believed that only a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad could be the true ruler of the Muslims, and since he had no male heirs, after his death, the community was to be headed by the closest relative - his cousin and son-in-law Ali.
Shiites believe that after the death of Ali, the only legitimate rulers of the Muslim community are the imams - the descendants of Ali from his marriage to Fatima, the daughter of the prophet. According to the Sunnis, the Caliph is the head of all Muslims, but his power is only secular. Shiites, on the other hand, believe that the imam possesses not only all the fullness secular power, but also is a carrier of secret knowledge, an interpreter of Sharia. This ability, from the point of view of the Shiites, is granted only to the descendants of Ali, since it is they who are the successors of the family of Muhammad and, therefore, the bearers of his grace.
Image of the events in Karbala in the tekie Moaven al-Molk in Kermanshah / photo source: rajanews.com
After the martyrdom of the third Imam Hussein near Karbala (680), his descendants decided to refrain from active participation in the political life of the Caliphate. They led a secluded and pious life, devoting themselves to the study of the Qur'an and hadith. However, even in such an atmosphere, conflicts arose. One of the largest was formed around the figure of the successor of the sixth imam, Jafar Sadiq. Initially, he wanted to transfer power over the community to his eldest son Ismail, but then he suddenly changed his mind in favor of the youngest son of Musa al-Kazim. Some researchers believe that the reason for this was the sharp position of Ismail in relation to the power of the caliphs.
Subsequent events took on mysterious character- Ismail dies under strange circumstances, and Jafar has to announce the death of his son as widely as possible. However, some of Ismail's supporters do not believe in his death. They believe that he did not die, but went into "concealment" (ġaybat) and will appear only at the end of time. They named their son Ismail Muhammad as the head of their community. Thus, a split occurred among the Shiites, as a result of which a religious doctrine Ismailis.
Secret call
The Ismaili community found itself in the position of "strangers among strangers" - despite the fact that Shiite movements played a huge role in the success of the Abbasid revolution, they never managed to get power into their own hands. The Ismailis, on the other hand, had disagreements not only with the Sunni caliphs, but also with their seemingly Shiite allies. Therefore, already at an early stage of the existence of the community, several key rules for it were formulated - concealment of one's true faith (taqīya) and secret propaganda of one's views, or "call" (daʻva).
Gold coin of Abdallah al-Mahdi / photo source: wikipedia.org
The environment for Ismaili propaganda was successfully chosen - first of all, they were guided by the poorest sections of the population, who, despite the promises of the Abbasid agents, did not improve their situation in any way. Ismaili preachers, hoping for the imminent arrival of a hidden imam and the beginning of an era of justice, actively persuaded many of their listeners to join their ranks and thereby attracted the attention of the authorities.
heyday
In 899, one of the descendants of Ismail, who took the name of Abdallah al-Mahdi, became the head of the Ismaili community. First of all, he sent out new instructions to preachers - now the head of the community was considered an imam, Ismail's spiritual heir and a bearer of secret knowledge. Naturally, this change in doctrine led to divisions in the community, but the new leader acted decisively. The propaganda led to an Ismaili uprising in Syria, from which Abdallah tried to disassociate himself. It did not work out: the rebels were defeated, and the head of the community, on whom the hunt began, was forced to flee to North Africa, where he pretended to be a merchant for a long time.
In Africa, a local preacher achieved great success, who managed to win over the Berbers from the Kutama tribe to his side. While Abdallah was hiding from the local rulers of the Aghlabids, the Berbers took city after city and, in the end, after capturing Kairavan, the capital of the dynasty, they forced the last Aghlabid emir to flee the country. In 909, the accession of a new dynasty of the Fatimids (leading their family from the daughter of the prophet Fatima) was announced, and Abdallah al-Mahdi became the first caliph.
Map of the Fatimid Caliphate / photo source: scowlliviz.blogspot.ru
The main goal for the new state was to seize the fertile lands of Egypt. The first attempts were made during the reign of al-Mahdi, but the Fatimids achieved success only after almost 70 years. An army of thousands under the leadership of Jauhar al-Sakali, a Sicilian of Greek origin, won a series of victories in 969 and captured the city of Fustat. The Fatimid caliph arrived there in 972 and nearby founded the new capital of his state - Cairo.
In the Fatimid state, Ismailism was declared an official creed, and its adherents were allowed to openly profess their practices. It was there that many ordinary members of the Ismaili communities rushed from all over the Muslim world. However, even when they came to power, the Fatimid caliphs-imams not only did not stop, but even strengthened the “call”.
community structure
The territory that was not under the rule of the Fatimids was divided into regions called "islands" (jazīra). Ismaili preachers operated in each of the "islands" - of course, each of them could not act openly, because with the strengthening of the Fatimid Caliphate, additional attention was riveted to its agents. The preacher singled out from among his parishioners those who were especially interested in Ismaili teachings, and over time they became full members of the community.
Modern Ismailis / photo source: okhowah.ir
At the head of each of the "islands" was a preacher of a higher rank - he was called "proof" (ḥujjat). He, in turn, had several assistants, one of whom bore the title of "crusher" (mukasir), since it was his duty to destroy the old views of the newly converted Ismaili. The "headquarters" of the Ismaili propaganda was in Cairo, and all the "evidence" was subordinate to the main preacher.
New split
It is believed that the era of the Fatimid Caliphate was a golden age in the history of Ismailism. However, it was precisely at this time that another division within the community dates back. At the end of the 11th century, Caliph al-Mustansir deprived his eldest son Nizar of the right to inherit and appointed his younger brother Mustali as his successor. Nizar did not agree with this decision and after the death of his father began an armed struggle for the throne. His rivals took over and executed Nizar, but part of the Ismailis still believed that it was Nizar who was the legitimate head of the community. Thus, another split occurred in Ismailism - into Nizarites and Mustalites.
Nizar was supported by the Ismailis of Syria, Iraq and Persia, and one of his most famous supporters was the talented preacher Hassan ibn Sabbah. It was his Ismaili community that gained the greatest fame in the world and became a source of inspiration for many legends and myths. It was the assassins, the “ruthless killers”, drugged by drugs and the speeches of the “old man of the mountain”, who promised them heavenly places, for a long time became the “calling card” of Ismailism, although, as we can see, these tales of European travelers have little in common with reality.
followers of one of the largest movements of Shiite Islam (see Art. Shiism), the emergence of which is associated with a split among the Shiites in the 2nd half. 8th century After the death of the 6th Shiite Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq in 765, the majority of Shiites recognized Musa al-Kazim, one of the sons of Ja'far, as the 7th Imam. However, part of the Shiites proclaimed Ismail, the eldest son of Jafar, the heir to the Imamat. According to Ismaili sources, Ismail outlived his father and duly succeeded him, according to other Shia sources, he died earlier (in 762 or 763). The seventh imam was the eldest son of Ismail - Muhammad (born c. 738). Shortly after the recognition of Musa's Imamate by a significant portion of the Shiites, Muhammad left Medina and traveled east, seeking to avoid persecution by the Abbasids. He marked the beginning of the 1st "period of concealment" (arab. "daur as-satr"), which played after. important role in the history of Ismailism. He spent the rest of his days in Khuzestan (Southern Iran), where he died ca. 795 In mid. 9th century I. opposed the power of the Abbasids. At that time, there were 2 directions among them: the I. proper and the Karmatians. .
In 890, the Qarmatians, led by Hamdan bin al-Ash "as, revolted in Iraq. In 899, the representative of Hamdan, Abu Said al-Jannabi, founded an independent Qarmatian state on the island of Bahrain with its capital in Al-Ahs Under Abu Tahir Suleiman (914-943), the son of al-Jannabi, the Qarmatians of Bahrain captured Oman. In 930, during the Hajj, they raided Mecca, plundered the city, broke out the "black stone" in the Kaaba, smashed it into 2 parts and taken to Bahrain.The Qarmatians agreed to return the relic for a ransom only in 951. The Qarmatian state in Bahrain existed until the end of the 11th century, and their ideas continued to dominate there for another 200 years.
Ismaili tradition recognizes 3 generations between Muhammad bin Ismail and Abdallah al-Mahdi, the founder of the Fatimid Caliphate (see Fatimid article) and the last imam of the as-satr period (Arabic for "covering up") in the history of early Ismailism. The first of these imams was Abdallah al-Akbar (Arabic - "senior"). Ismaili preachers (Arabic: “dai”) purchased for Abdallah al-Akbar a piece of land in Salamiyah, a city located on the edge of the Syrian desert, 35 km southeast of Hama. The Imam built a palace at Salamiyah, which remained the Ismaili headquarters until 902. He died there shortly after 874. Approx. In 1009, under the Fatimids, a mausoleum was erected over his grave, which still exists and is known as maqam al-imam (Arabic - “tomb of the imam”). After the death of Abdallah al-Akbar, his son Ahmad became the new imam, who had 2 sons - Hussein and Muhammad. According to Ismaili tradition, Ahmad was succeeded by Hussein. He died ca. 881, when his son Ali (later Fatimid caliph Abdallah al-Mahdi) was only 8 years old. The child was placed in the care of Muhammad ibn Ahmad, his father's brother, who became his guardian. The leadership of I. for a long period passed to Muhammad. He gave one of his daughters in marriage to Ali, and from this marriage in 893. al-Qaim, 2nd Fatimid caliph.
After the death of Muhammad ben Ahmad in 899, Ali headed I. and from then on became known as Abdallah al-Mahdi. In 909, he was proclaimed caliph in Sijilmas (southeast of modern Morocco). With this event is connected the end of the period of "concealment" in early Ismailism. After accession to the throne, Abdallah al-Mahdi, in a letter to the Ismaili community of Yemen, for the first time publicized the methods that his predecessors used in missionary practice. He explained in the message that they were secretly the legitimate imams who succeeded Ja'far al-Sadiq, but concealed this for security reasons. Their reduction of their mission to the role of huja (Arabic - "proof") was chosen as taqiyya (Arabic - "precaution") in order to avoid persecution by the Abbasids.
The establishment of the 1st Shiite caliphate was a challenge to the authority of the Abbasid caliphs, officers. representatives of Sunni Islam, and the views of Sunni scholars who defined Sunnism as the only true interpretation of Islam. In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt and transferred the capital of the Caliphate to Cairo, which they had founded. The Fatimids managed to include countries from the Maghreb to the Hijaz, Palestine and Syria into the caliphate, and for one year (1058/59) took control of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasids.
In 1094, after the death of Caliph al-Mustansir, Israel split into supporters of his eldest son Nizar (Nizari) and his younger son Mustali (Mustalites), who was recognized as the next caliph. Nizar raised an uprising in Alexandria, but was captured and executed in 1095. The Nizarites became the predominant direction among Iran and the countries of the Arab Mashrik, and the Mustalites - in the North. Africa, including Egypt, and other countries subordinate to the Fatimids. From con. 11th century the gradual decline of the Fatimid caliphate is noted. All later caliphs were, as a rule, puppets in the hands of viziers, the last of which, Salah ad-Din, in 1171 abolished the power of the Fatimids.
In the north of Iran in 1090, the Nizari preacher Dai Hasan ibn al-Sabbah (1055-1124) created a state with a center in the mountain fortress of Alamut. as a religion. language of I. Iran, Hasan ibn al-Sabbah approved Persian, not Arabic, which was the first such precedent for such a significant Muslim. communities. During the Alamut and later periods, the Nizari of Iran, Afghanistan and Wed. Asia created their literature exclusively in Persian. language.
In the era of the Crusades, the leaders of the Nizari waged an active struggle for leadership in the Muslims. world, using various forms of jihad, in particular the assassination of prominent political figures. According to the semi-legendary ideas of contemporaries, the perpetrators of the murders took stimulants. Apparently, the word "assassin", meaning in a number of European. languages "killer", goes back to the distorted Arabic. "hashish" (using hashish). The spread of the myth of the Assassins in Europe was facilitated by Marco Polo, who described the preparation of Bud. killers, for the motivation of which they allegedly staged a stay in paradise with the houris.
Information about the hierarchy and organization of I., which are present in Ismaili and anti-Ismaili sources, is rather contradictory and cannot be considered as completely reliable. The strict gradation of initiation (Arabic: al-balag) presented in Ismaili sources reflects an ideal model rather than actual practice. The organization, headed by the imam, was built on the principle of matching its links to a system of numbers, which, in turn, corresponded to the phenomena of the physical world. So, by analogy with the number of months, constellations, etc., the world was divided into 12 “islands” (Arabic “al-jazair”), each was headed by the supreme preacher appointed by the imam (Arabic “dai duat al-jazeera” or "an-naqib"). His advisers and assistants were 30 Nakib preachers, according to the number of days of a full month. Each nakib was subject to 24 dais (according to the number of hours in a day): 12 "day" ("visible") and 12 "night" ("hidden"). The "visible" provoked the "hidden" and held public disputes with the ulema and faqihs, while hiding their affiliation with I. The newcomers trained by them were transferred to the "hidden" dais, who had the right to take an oath from the neophytes. From among the most authoritative dais, those who bore the title of “chief dai” (Arabic “dai ad-duat”) were elected, who became intermediaries between the imam and the supreme dais of the “islands”. The closest to the imam was Bab-al-abwab, or al-Bab (Arabic - “gates”), the powers of which were known only to the imam and his heirs. According to Ismaili authors, this hierarchy, with some divergences, persisted until the end of the Fatimid rule in Egypt. Among the Nizaris, it was somewhat simplified. The chief dai bore the title of "ash-Shaikh" (sheikh) instead of dai ad-duat, and his deputy, an-naib, was appointed to each district, to whom the dai preachers were subordinate. A special role was played by the fidai, who received assignments directly from the deputies of the imam in the districts. According to other sources, the Nizari hierarchy consisted of 7 levels: imam, dai ad-duat, ad-dai al-kabir, ad-dai, ar-rafiq, al-lasik, al-fidai. Among the Mustalites, a manager (Arabic “al-amil”) was appointed for each place of residence of believers from among those who received spiritual education in a special educational institution in the city of Surat (India). The manager was in charge of collecting taxes and transferring them to the supreme preacher (Arab. "ad-dai al-mutlak"), as well as certain religious and legal issues (Prozorov . 1991. p. 112).
The fourth ruler of Alamut, Hassan II (1162-1166), proclaimed himself an imam, but not in the earthly, but in the spiritual sense, i.e. in the highest heavenly reality (Arabic "haqiqa"), since he was not a descendant of 4- go muslim. Caliph Ali, from whom the Shia imams traditionally traced their genealogy. The teachings of Hassan II were developed by his son, Imam Muhammad II (1166-1210), who proclaimed that the Imam is "the perfect revelation of God." The Nizaris believed that it was necessary to accept as truth what the ruling ruler proclaimed in the present. time imam, in contrast to the views of his predecessors. The last Nizari ruler of Alamut was Imam Khurshah, who capitulated in 1257 to the Mong. the forces of Hulagu Khan. After the fall of Alamut, the Nizari Imams went into hiding and lost direct contact with their followers. The post-Alamut period (2nd half of the 13th - early 15th century) is one of the most difficult in the history of Ismailism: the ties between the imam and his followers weakened, and the principle of taqiyyah was widely applied. Nizari imams, fearing the persecution of the Mongols, were forced to hide, and only some of the closest people knew their whereabouts. All ties with the Ismaili communities, especially those in remote areas, were severed. I.-Nizaris of Badakhshan, India, Afghanistan, Syria, and other regions during the 14th-15th centuries. did not know about the whereabouts of the imam.
After the proclamation in 1501 of the Imami branch of Shiism, the state. the religion of the state of the Safavids, more favorable conditions developed for Iran. Nevertheless, under the early Safavids, the Nizaris were persecuted. To avoid execution, the Nizari imam Shah-Tahir al-Husayni was forced in 1520 to leave Iran and settle in India. The Nizari imams restored the center of the imamate in Anjudan (Enjedan, Central Iran), in con. XVII - beginning. 18th century they took him to the village. Kahak (Kohek) (Daftari, 2004, p. 200). The Nizarites of Iran managed to renew ties with communities in other countries. Nizari preaching was especially successful in India (Sind and Gujarat).
During the reign of the Zend (1760-1794) and Qajar (1794-1925) dynasties, the imams of Iran actively participated in the political life of Iran. In 1817, the Ismaili Imam (since 1792) Shah-Khalilullah III died during riots against religion. soil in Yazd. Fath Ali Shah (1797-1834) from the Qajar dynasty granted the imam's widow's request for justice and gave one of his daughters in marriage to the son and successor of the murdered - Hassan Ali Shah. The Shah made the young imam the ruler of Qom and conferred on him the honorary title of "Aga Khan", which became hereditary in the Nizari imamate. The next Qajar ruler, Muhammad Shah (1834-1848), handed over the city of Kerman to Aga Khan I. However, the strengthening of the position of the Aga Khan and the hostile attitude towards him at court led to the removal of the imam from the post of ruler of Kerman in 1837. After a series of armed clashes with government troops, Aga Khan I had to leave Iran. In 1841, together with his retinue, he crossed the Afghan. border and arrived in Kandahar. From Afghanistan, Aga Khan I soon moved to India and founded a new center of Imamate of the I.-Nizaris in the city of Bombay (now Mumbai).
The transfer of the center of the imamate from Iran to India marked the beginning of a new period in its history. In British India, Aga Khan I enjoyed the support and protection of the colonial authorities. During the "Bombay period", which lasted almost 30 years, Aga Khan I managed to unite the scattered Nizari of India. The most organized among them was the Nizari Khoja community, so its experience served as the basis for the renewal of the Ismaili community. This led to the strengthening of the position of the Nizari Indians under Aga Khan II (1881-1885) and especially under Aga Khan III (1885-1957), baronet Sultan Muhammad Shah. Aga Khan III pursued a policy of transformation aimed at transforming the I.-Nizari community into a modern one. Muslim a community with a high educational qualification and a level of well-being. Through his activities in India and East. In Africa, a flexible system of government called "Nizari-Ismaili councils" arose. The functions and structure of the councils were determined by the developed hand. Imam "Basic Law of the Nizari Ismailis". The first council was created in Zanzibar, the center of the I.-Nizari Vost. Africa during this period. Under Aga Khan III, the organizational structure of the councils was transformed in connection with the revision of the provisions of the "Basic Law ..." in 1937, 1946 and 1954. Housing was built for the Nizaris, educational establishments, b-ki, hospitals, clinics, etc.
The "Basic Law..." of 1954 was updated in 1962, under the new Imam Aga Khan IV (from 1957 to the present). great attention was given to issues of personal law, divorce cases, guardianship, apostasy, etc. To address religion. issues, the organization “Ismaili Way and Religious Education” was created, which began its activities in Vost. Africa. She is responsible directly to the imam, responsible for the publication and dissemination of religions. Lit-ry I., however, does not have the authority to preach to attract proselytes. In the countries of residence of India, a network of charitable organizations has developed that are responsible for implementing development programs in the field of education and upbringing, health care, housing construction, etc. The main role among them belongs to the Aga Khan Foundation, founded in 1967. The headquarters of the foundation is in Geneva, its branches and departments are open in the countries of the East. Africa, South Asia, Europe and America. In 1994, a branch of the foundation was opened in Tajikistan.
Introduction Dec. 1986 of the new "Basic Law ..." greatly simplified and unified the system of governance of Ismaili communities. The creation of a unified system was largely in the interests of all Nizari communities, both in the East and in the West. Given that in the 70s and 80s. 20th century a large number of Nizari emigrated to Europe, America and the countries of the Persian Gulf., the new "Basic Law ..." provides for the creation of appropriate councils for the newly formed Nizari communities. In addition, the system of councils for countries of tradition has been significantly updated and improved. residence of the I.-Nizaris. The “Basic Law...” of 1986 proposed the formation of independent organizations in the countries of residence of the Nizari, where there are national councils. In particular, "societies of the Ismaili way and religious learning" will operate in all these countries. It should be noted that the new "Basic Law ..." considers the Ismaili-Nizari faith as an Ismaili tariqa, where the concept of "tarikat" is defined as "belief", "faith", "the path to religion" (in this sense, it is equivalent to the concept of "tarikat ' in Sufism).
After the adoption of the "Basic Law ..." in 1986, the system of councils extended to the Nizari community in Syria. In the 19th century Sir. I.-Nizari lived mainly in rural areas of the Center. Syria and remained under the leadership of hereditary feasts (spiritual mentors), emirs and worlds (rulers). In the 40s. 19th century The Nizari emir of the city of El-Kadmus, Amir Ismail, managed to unite a significant part of the Nizari of Syria and, with the support of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Majid I (1839-1861), revive the abandoned city of Salamiya. In con. 19th century The Nizari of Syria established contact with Imam Aga Khan III, who provided them with economic assistance. Today, the number of I.-Nizari in Syria reaches about 100 thousand people, they live mainly in Salamiyah and its environs. The leadership of the community is carried out by representatives of the family of Amir Ismail.
Despite the fact that one of the largest communities of I.-Nizaris has been preserved in Iran, there is no Ismaili council there. Aga Khan IV entrusted the leadership of the Ismaili community in Iran to 2 committees located in Tehran and Mashhad (since 1973). The members of the committees are appointed by the Imam from among the candidates put forward by the Nizari community. Imam controls their activities. The Islamic Nizari of Iran retained the traditional communal organization. According to various estimates, more than 100,000 Islamic Nizari live in Iran. OK. half lives in the province (prov.) Khorasan, in the south. districts and in the cities of Kaen, Birjand, Momenabad, Nesrabad, Mozdab, in the villages. Hoshk.
One of the largest is the Ismaili community of Afghanistan, in turn divided into 2 large groups: the Ismailis-Khazarites, headed by the hereditary feast Seyid Nasir Shah Nodiri, and the Ismailis of Afghan Badakhshan (Darvaz, Shignan, Ishkashim, Wakhan), which are led by numerous hereditary feasts and caliphs (deputy feasts).
I.-Hazaras mainly live in Hazarajat, in the Doshi region of the prov. Baghlan, as well as in Kabul. The community has been headed by representatives of the Kayani family for 2 centuries. The first officer Abdul Shah Hadi became the head of the community from this clan. In the 30s. 19th century he received a firman (decree) from the imam of the I.-Nizari Aga Khan I on the appointment of the I.-Khazarites of Afghanistan as a feast. During the reign of Hafizullah Amin I., the Hazaras were subjected to repression. Under Babrak Karmal (1979-1986) and Najibullah (1986-1992), the Kayani feasts sought to stay out of the civil war. Seyid Mansur Nodiri managed to establish good relations with the Kabul regime and with some opposition leaders (Burhanuddin Rabbani, Ahmad Shah Masud, and others), securing the borders of the compact residence of I.-Khazarites in the prov. Baghlan. He created his own administration there, formed armed detachments and organized a network of commercial and financial institutions. When the Taliban seized power in Kabul in 1996, the Islamic Hazara leadership joined the anti-Taliban alliance. Due to persecution by the Taliban, Seyid Mansur Nodiri and some other leaders of I. were forced to emigrate from the country.
The second independent group of I.-Nizaris of Afghanistan lives in the prov. Badakhshan. It is governed by local peers, who, as a rule, pass on their post by inheritance. Each pir, depending on the number of households included in its flock, has a certain number of caliphs, who collect zakat (a mandatory property and income tax that goes to the needs of the community) and monitor the observance of traditions. rituals and customs. In the summer of 2002, the Aga Khan IV issued a firman calling for the abolition of the functions of pirs as hereditary leaders of local Ismailism.
A significant number of I.-Nizaris live in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (GBAO) of Tajikistan. To the beginning 30s 20th century religious Tajik leaders. I. were repressed or fled abroad. In 1936, the Government of the USSR decided to close the border with Afghanistan, which had a negative impact on the ties of local Islam with fellow believers abroad, restored only after the collapse of the USSR. From con. 20th century The Aga Khan Foundation is active in GBAO.
After the assassination in 1130 of the Fatimid caliph al-Amir, the son and heir of Mustali, the Mustalites split into Hafiz and Tayyibites. The Hafizites recognized the late Fatimids as imams and ceased to exist as a current with the end of the Fatimid dynasty. Tayyibites after al-Amir do not have a revealed imam, and they are led by the main preachers (Arabic "da'i mutlak"). In con. 16th century they, in turn, were divided into Daudites and Suleimanites. In present At the time, the head of the Daudite community lives in Mumbai. The total number of Daudites is approximately 700 thousand people. The Suleimanites mainly live in Yemen, but the residence of their spiritual leader is located in Najran, which in 1934 came under the control of Saudi Arabia. The total number of Suleymanites reaches approx. 100 thousand people
In the religious and philosophical doctrine of I.
2 aspects are distinguished: az-zahir (Arabic - “external”), accessible to ordinary members of the community, and al-batyn (Arabic - “internal, secret”), accessible only to al-hawass (Arabic - “initiated”), occupying the highest levels of the Ismaili hierarchy. The "external" teaching includes ritual and legal norms that are obligatory for ordinary members of the community. The "internal" doctrine of I. consists of 2 parts: at-tawil (Arabic - interpretation, clarification), i.e., an allegorical interpretation of the Koran, and al-hakaik (Arabic - "truth") - a system of philosophical and theological knowledge about "higher truths". The religious and philosophical teaching of I. was formed under the strong influence of the Neoplatonists and Gnostics, it acquired a complete character in the works of Hamid-ad-Din al-Kirmani (d. 1020/21). An-Nasafi (d. 942/3), Hibatullah ash-Shirazi (d. 1077/78), Ibrahim al-Hamidi (d. 1161/62), the author of The Treasure of the Child (‘ Kanz al-walad"), which is actually a commentary on the "Peace of the Mind".
According to the religious and philosophical ideas of I., God (absolute), inaccessible to understanding, gave birth to the "World Mind", which in turn gave rise to the "World Soul". The "World Soul" created the visible world accessible to perception. The earthly incarnation of the "World Mind" was 7 prophets, the first 6 of which are Adam, Ibrahim, Nuh, Musa, Isa (cf. Adam, Abraham, Noah, Moses, Jesus) and Muhammad. Each of them opened a new stage of Divine revelation. The earthly incarnation of the “World Soul” is the “heirs” (Arab. “vases”), who are under each of the prophets (for example, Apostle Peter under Jesus, Ali under Muhammad) and explaining the hidden meaning of their messages. In each epoch, each vas was inherited by 7 imams, who were called “finishers” (Arab. “atimma”), since they kept the true meaning of divine texts from the so-called sp. their internal and external content. The seventh imam rose in rank and became the prophet of the next era, rejecting religion. the law of the previous time and proclaiming a new one. Muhammad bin Ismail was the 7th imam in the 6th era - the era of Islam. At a certain point, he went into hiding as the Mahdi. Upon his return, he will become the 7th prophet and begin the final era. However, it will not bring a new religious law to replace the law of Islam, but will reveal to mankind the hidden inner truths of all previous generations. Muhammad bin Ismail will also become the last Imam - the eschatological Imam Mahdi. In the final era, eternal truths will appear without allegories and symbols, there will be no difference between the external (Arabic “zahir”) and internal (Arabic “batyn”), the letter of the Sharia and the internal spiritual meaning. Muhammad bin Ismail will rule justly as long as the physical world exists.
An important role in Ismailism is played by the idea of a concept that permeates the entire universe of life, which ultimately explains both the rational order of the cosmos and vitality existing. Ismaili thinkers developed the concept of "balance" (Arab. "tawazun"), the macrostructures of the universe, in which the individual elements correspond to each other. The secret society “Brothers of Purity” (“Ikhvan as-safa”), which existed in the 10th century, included I. or was close to them.
“True confession” (Arab. “milla hanifia”), according to Ismaili theologians, is possible only as a combination of “worship by action” (Arab. “ibada bi-l-amal”), or explicit worship, and “worship by knowledge” (Arab. "ibada bi-l-ilm"), or hidden worship. The main purpose of such a connection is to ensure a correspondence between the virtues acquired in the process of both worships, since the achievement of the final "happiness" (Arabic "saada") depends on this. The absence of the desired harmony, when any of these 2 sides becomes predominant, turns out, according to the theorists of Ismailism, to be wrong in terms of sp. theory and ineffective with t. sp. practice, because it does not give happiness. Moreover, the violation of the necessary correlation between the external and the internal leads to the final death of a person.
The combination of explicit and hidden worship bestows on the soul a special virtue (Arabic "tashshabuh"), which allows a person to achieve unity with the Beginning of the Universe.
Lit.: Lewis B. The Origins of Isma "ilism: A Study of the Historical Background of the Fa timid Caliphate. Camb., 1940; Ivanow W. A. Ismaili Tradition Concerning the Rise of the Fatimids. L.; N. Y., 1942; idem. The Alleged Founder of Ismailism, Bombay, 1946, idem, Alamut and Lamasar: Two Mediaeval Ismaili Strongholds in Iran, Teheran, 1960, Madelung W. Das Imamat in der frühen ismailitischen Lehre, Der Islam, Strassburg, 1961, Bd.37. S. 43-135; Stroeva L. V. The Ismaili state in Iran in the XI-XIII centuries. M., 1978; Corbin H. Cyclical Time and Ismaili Gnosis. L.; Boston, 1983; Dodikhudoev H. D. Philosophy of the peasant revolt . Dushanbe, 1987; Prozorov S. M. al-Isma "iliyya // Islam. M., 1991. S. 110-114; Al-Kirmani Hamid ad-Din. Peace of Mind / Per. from Arabic, foreword: A. V. Smirnov. M., 1995; Shokhumorov S. Ismailism: traditions and modernity // central Asia and the Caucasus. 2000. No. 2(8). pp. 128-138 [Electr. resource: www.ca-c.org/journal/cac-08-2000/13.shokhum.shtml]; Daftari F. A Brief History of Ismailism: Traditions of the Muslim Community / Translated from English: L. R. Dodykhudoeva. M., 2004; aka. Traditions of Ismailism in the Middle Ages / Translated from English: Z. Odzhieva. M ., 2006; aka Legends of the Assassins: Myths about the Ismailis / Translated from English: L. R. Dodykhudoeva. M., 2009; Hodgson M. J. S. The Order of the Assassins: The Struggle of the Early Nizari Ismailis with the Islamic World / Translated from English: S. V. Ivanov, St. Petersburg, 2004.
M. Yu. Roshchin
