Through the senses, thinking, as well as with the help of intuition and emotions, a person, in the course of the cognitive process, gains knowledge about objects and relationships. But this knowledge can be either true or false.
True- this is the correspondence of the received knowledge to reality, such a reflection of the object by the knowing subject, in which the cognitive object is reproduced as it exists on its own, outside of consciousness. Or in other words: truth is the correspondence of ideas or statements to the real state of affairs. The concept of “truth” is complex and multifaceted.
Since a person cannot always cognize the truth in full (for example, reflecting quantum mechanical or socio-historical processes) and his knowledge is limited to this specific moment, such truth is called relative. Relative truth is limited true knowledge about something. Over time, relative truth may become a special case of a general rule or even turn out to be a fallacy. Absolute truth is made up of relative truths. Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about a complex object. The content of truth is constantly expanding and becoming more precise, thus the process of cognition is endless.
Not every truth is absolute and final. There are not many such truths at all. There are much more relative truths.
How can we distinguish truth from error, from erroneous conclusions that often occur in the process of cognition?
There is a point of view that knowledge is true only when it is consistent, logically coherent, i.e., consistent with the existing belief system.
Another criterion of truth is the recognition as true of what is useful for a person.
These points of view characterize the properties that one would like to discover in true knowledge. However, critics of the stated views note that not every logically coherent theory is true and, on the contrary, knowledge that does not bring immediate benefit may turn out to be true.
Practice is considered a more reliable criterion of truth. If, for example, a nuclear power plant created on the basis of a certain physical theory produces electricity, then this theory is true. But this point of view is criticized: practice does not cover the entire real world, moreover, practical confirmation of a theory may not occur immediately, but after many years, but this does not mean that this theory is not true. Therefore, philosophy puts forward the idea of complementarity: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, and is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
Statements that are not true are either misconceptions or lies. If delusion- this is the content of knowledge that does not correspond to reality, but is mistakenly accepted as true, then lie- this is a distortion of the actual state of affairs, with the goal of deceiving someone. From a moral point of view, delusion is a conscientious untruth, and deception is an unconscionable lie.
Truth manifests itself specifically in each area of knowledge. In historical research it will be different than, for example, in chemistry or literary criticism. In the mathematical sciences, the substantiation of propositions always ends with a theoretical proof: the criterion of the truth of these propositions is directly the theory. The truth is also specific in a judicial investigation, where it is often difficult to get to it, examining many hypotheses, facts, data obtained by experts, and testimony.
The category “truth”, along with the concepts of “goodness” and “beauty”, can be attributed to the basic values of society. Knowledge that accurately expresses the essence and properties of the subject under consideration can be considered true.
Concept of truth
Truth is knowledge that corresponds to the subject of knowledge.
This expresses the most important property of true knowledge - its objectivity, independence from human consciousness, his passions and interests. However, a problem arises here: what are the indicators that allow us to draw a conclusion about the truth of the acquired knowledge? Science is especially strict in the selection and testing of criteria and methods of substantiating truth. Various interpretations of the concept of “truth”:
- Correspondence of knowledge to reality.
- What is confirmed by experience.
- Some kind of agreement, convention.
- Property of self-consistency of knowledge.
- The usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.
Truth is one, but it has objective, absolute and relative aspects, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths. In the history of philosophy, especially in the modern period, two directions stood out, whose representatives differently defined the role of feelings and reason in knowledge.
Criteria of truth
Empiricists believed that the source and basis of all knowledge is sensory experience. The limitations of empiricism today are quite obvious. Firstly, as already noted, at the levels of perception and representation, to obtain a holistic picture of the world, our consciousness uses elements of generalized knowledge, in addition, our sensory experience can give a distorted idea of reality. Secondly, many theoretical postulates underlying scientific knowledge cannot be substantiated experimentally.
In addition, experience itself is not something original; we “see” reality from a certain angle, we concentrate attention on individual objects for one reason or another that is significant to us - in a word, sensory experience is the result of understanding and interpretation. For representatives of another direction - rationalists - the criterion of truth was reason. Mathematics was taken as a model of true knowledge. Many researchers have criticized rationalism for, in their opinion, unfounded claims to the exclusive role of reason in human activity and the development of society.
Some scientists have proposed that the definition of what is considered true scientific knowledge lies in agreement between researchers - "conventions". In attempts to remove the one-sidedness of these approaches, another view of the main criterion of truth was born. Let's take a simple example. Let's say that a person sees a dark spot on a white background. However, does it really exist? Yes, some will immediately say, provided that other people see it. But maybe the point is that all people have the same psychophysiological mechanism of perception?
Practice as a universal criterion of truth
How to go beyond sensory experience? This is possible in different ways. First, carry out an experiment using special instruments. Secondly, to carry out practical interaction of the observed phenomenon with some other one. Depending on whether we received the expected effect, we can judge the truth of the initial judgment. Both of these ways fit into the concept “ practice ", which is considered as a criterion of truth. Moreover, this concept is interpreted broadly: it includes material production, accumulated experience, and scientific experiment.
It is hardly possible to dispute the significant role of practice in the cognitive activity of people. Practical needs gave rise to many branches of scientific knowledge. From the history course you know how the needs of agriculture and navigation stimulated the development of astronomy and geometry. Production creates instruments and apparatus for scientific research that significantly expand human cognitive capabilities. From the point of view of this approach, knowledge about objects and phenomena can be considered correct if with their help we can do certain real things and carry out expedient transformations. At the same time, many philosophers believe that recognizing practice as a criterion of truth is not the final solution to the problem. Firstly, practice cannot be considered as a universal criterion of truth. Secondly, if we consider practical success as an indicator of the correctness of the theories put forward, it means that we will have to abandon the principle of the development of knowledge: if a practical problem has been solved, it means that the completeness of knowledge about the subject has been achieved, the complete truth has been obtained. The difference between absolute and relative truths (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always specific: associated with a specific place, time, circumstances. Possible criteria of truth
- Compliance with the laws of logic.
- Compliance with previously discovered laws of a particular science.
- Compliance with fundamental laws.
- Simplicity, economical form.
- The paradox of the idea.
- Practice.
Absolute truth
Absolute truth - this is undoubted, unchangeable, once and for all established knowledge. Absolute truth completely exhausts the subject and cannot be refuted with the further development of knowledge. Can we consider it, for example, the statement that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is always equal to 180°? Yes, for Euclidean geometry this is an indisputable statement. However, in other geometric systems it is erroneous. In addition, the claim to absolute knowledge contradicts the emphasis on criticality - a necessary feature of scientific knowledge. After all, knowledge presupposes the active work of thought, and to think means to doubt.
Relative truth
Most philosophers consider absolute truth as a model (ideal) or limit to which our knowledge strives. On the way to this goal we get relative truths, i.e. incomplete, limited knowledge. The relativity of our knowledge is due to a number of reasons. First of all, the world itself is infinitely changeable. As already noted, human cognitive capabilities are also limited. In addition, the possibilities of knowledge depend on the real historical conditions of their time and are determined by the level of development of spiritual culture, material production, and the available means of observation and experiment. As a result, at each stage of cognitive activity we receive knowledge that is incomplete, incomplete, and impermanent. But as knowledge accumulates, some relative truths are replaced by others, more complete and profound. Some philosophers compare the path of knowledge to a ladder, where each newly discovered truth is a step to the next.
If we have a powerful and effective instrument of cognition - the brain, we know what truth is, we strive for true knowledge, then why is the number of misconceptions of humanity as a whole and of each of us individually so large? (Here we discard cases of deliberate lies, deliberate manipulation of facts.) Modern psychology has identified some mechanisms of perception and thinking that can lead us to false conclusions. In particular, it is well known how committed we are to conventional wisdom, even when it diverges from hard facts and evidence-based conclusions. Some of these opinions develop spontaneously, others are imposed by propaganda or advertising. For example, for a long time, many were convinced that fatness, “fullness”, was a sign of health. This view persisted despite medical assurances to the contrary. Social myths take shape and persist for centuries, for example the belief that all power comes from God. People also tend to make connections where there really aren't any. But the main thing that prevents the establishment of the truth is, in the language of science, the lack of complete and accurate information about the subject of interest to us, as well as the necessary means for processing it. Of course, it is hardly possible to have comprehensive information, especially about a complex object of knowledge. That is why we say that our knowledge is formed by relative truths. But even what is already known for certain is not always taken into account by each of us: something seems unimportant, something we reject as contrary to established views. Since our ability to comprehend information is not unlimited, we simply discard a lot of information, simplify the complex, and often make decisions based not on an analysis of the situation, but on the use of a familiar scheme - stereotype . As a result, our conclusions are often superficial and sometimes erroneous. Science is primarily called upon to obtain objective, true knowledge about the world and man.
Practice - a holistic organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context. Forms of practice: material production (material production (labor), transformation of nature); socio-political: social action (reform, revolution, war, etc.) and scientific-experimental.
Characteristic features of the practice:
- Source of knowledge: the existing sciences were brought to life by practical needs.
- The basis of knowledge: a person does not just observe or contemplate the world around him, but in the process of his life transforms it → the most profound knowledge of those properties and connections of the material world occurs that would simply be inaccessible to human knowledge if it were limited only to simple contemplation, passive observation. Practice equips knowledge with tools, instruments, and equipment.
- The purpose of cognition: for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities.
- Criterion of truth: until some position expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple conclusion is tested experimentally and put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption).
1. The concept of truth. So, the results of our cognition (knowledge) may vary. How then can we determine who is right and who is wrong? The relationship between our knowledge and reality is characterized by the concept of truth.
Truth is an adequate (true, correct) reflection of reality in human consciousness.
The opposite of truth is error and lies. Misconception- content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted as true, that is, an unconscious distortion of reality. “For one person to discover a fruitful truth, it is necessary for a hundred people to burn their lives to ashes in unsuccessful searches and sad mistakes” (Pisarev). Unlike delusion, a lie is a deliberate distortion of the truth. Russian philosophy, instead of the category “truth”, uses the concept of “truth” - the conscious affirmation of truth, the struggle for it.
Not everything in our lives can be assessed in terms of truth or error. For example, works of art. From the point of view of philosophy, its main categories are fundamentally different.
Truth is one, but for the convenience of its study, various aspects are distinguished in it - properties, types, criteria.
2. Properties of truth. Any truth is objective and concrete.
A. Objectivity truth means that it exists in reality, regardless of the consciousness of people, of the cognizing subject. Knowledge about the movement of the Earth around the Sun is meaningfully determined by the object of knowledge (the interaction of the Earth and the Sun), and not by the subject (man).
B. Specificity - a property of truth based on taking into account the specific conditions of existence of a particular phenomenon, the dependence of truth on the conditions of place and time, etc. For example, the truth or falsity of certain proposals cannot be established unless the conditions are specified, according to which they are formulated. The sentence “The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 2d” is true only for Euclidean geometry and false in Lobachevsky geometry.
IN. True knowledge can be expressed in different ways by different people - formulas, definitions, laws, etc. This is the subjectivity of truth. But it is subjective only in the form of expression, and not in essence.
3. Types of truth. They distinguish between relative and absolute truth.
A. Absolute truth – this is complete, comprehensive, accurate, final knowledge about the object of study. Absolute truth is eternal, it embodies the infinity of our knowledge of the world, the limit to which our knowledge strives. It exists, rather, as a goal of knowledge, and not as a result actually achieved.
B. Relative truth. The steps on the path to absolute truth are relative truths. Relative truth is complete and accurate knowledge about the object of research, but only at a given level of scientific development. Relative truth depends on actual historical conditions, in particular on the accuracy or perfection of means of observation or measurement, and experiment.
B. The connection between absolute and relative truths. They cannot be separated one from the other. Absolute truth includes relative truths leading to it, and each relative truth is, as it were, a particle of the absolute truth. Absolute and relative truths are objective truths. The difference between them is only in the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality.
4. Criteria of truth. So, truth is knowledge corresponding to reality. But how do you know if knowledge corresponds to reality, how can this be verified? Using criteria - indicators, signs, measures.
The main criterion of truth in knowledge is practice(activity, experience or experiment).
For the exact sciences, the most important criterion of truth is consistency or formal-logical consistency of knowledge, harmonious logical proof, for example, theorems.
Confirms the truth of compliance with previously discovered laws of science.
Additional criteria for truth can be simplicity, harmony, practical usefulness, morality, etc.
SPIRITUAL LIFE
The concept of culture. Forms and varieties of culture
What is culture?
A. Definitions of culture Culture is one of the most ambiguous concepts. Culture is studied by the science of culturology, which has about 400 definitions of culture. The word “culture” comes from Lat. culture- soil cultivation. In a broad sense, culture refers to everything that is created by man in the material, spiritual and social world, that is, everything supernatural - “second nature”. Culture - the totality of all types of human transformative activity, as well as the result of this activity, including the transformation of a person himself. But the real one TO. should contribute to the spiritual improvement of a person, in this it differs from anti-culture (concentration camps, instruments of torture). In a narrow sense and in everyday life, we are accustomed to using the concept K in the meaning the process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values are created, distributed and consumed.
B. Functions of culture Culture performs many functions in society: adaptive, regulatory, socialization, axeological (value), informational, symbolic, cognitive, communicative, integrative, relaxation (recreational), humanistic, creative. However, K. does not just serve something, it has intrinsic value - it is the only possible way of human existence. In general, the role of culture is that it preserves and transmits various information. This transfer of experience is carried out in the course of two parallel processes - continuity and innovation.
B. Spheres of cultural existence . Highlight two such areas– material (tangible, satisfying physical needs - house, furniture, clothes...) and spiritual (contained in the consciousness, satisfying ideal needs - literature, art, science...). In every object of life there is an element of both material and spiritual. Spiritual culture finds its expression in material objects (book, painting...). An object can be classified as a material or spiritual K. on the basis of the needs that it satisfies. Structure K: needs (material or spiritual) → production (…..) → benefits (…..).
| The structure of the spiritual life of society | |||||||
| spiritual needs | spiritual activity (spiritual production) | spiritual goods (values) | |||||
| represent the objective need of people and society as a whole to create and master spiritual values | production of consciousness in a special social form, carried out by specialized groups of people professionally engaged in qualified mental labor | · ideas, theories, images and spiritual values; · spiritual social connections of individuals; · man himself as a spiritual being |
Spiritual culture that exists exclusively in the minds of people - knowledge, faith, feelings, aspirations, thoughts, interests, abilities - is called the spiritual world of man. The spiritual life of an individual manifests itself in society as the spiritual sphere public life. Its main elements– law, morality, philosophy, science, art, religion.
Forms and types of culture
A. Methods of classifying culture:
· in connection with religion, separate secular and religious cultures;
· by ethnicity – world and national;
· according to civilization – the culture of the West and the culture of the East;
· by territorial – rural and urban;
· according to the level of performance and audience – elite, popular and mass;
· by distribution – dominant and subcultures,
· according to social class – peasant, noble, proletarian, bourgeois, ….
· according to historical characteristics – primitive, medieval, modern
· by type of activity – artistic, political, environmental….
B. Forms of culture
Folk(= folklore - from English. folk-lore - folk art): the first, anonymous, simple, traditional, figurative, national, everyday and epic themes are common. Examples: epics, fairy tales, legends, ditties, proverbs, songs, dances, epics, etc.)
Elite(from the French elit - the best, selected, chosen) for the highest part of society (“high”), author’s character, experimental, self-expression, for the intelligentsia and specialists, complex in content, full of symbols, subject of debate, changes with style. Examples: music by Stravinsky, painting by S. Dali or films by F. Fellini.
Mass(from massa - from Latin com, piece) Appears at the beginning of the 20th century and blossoms. Reasons: population explosion, urbanization, conveyor belt, media. Massa is the average person. It is primitive in content, satisfies momentary needs, is quickly forgotten, is made for sale, is a commodity. Kitsch (from German kitsch - cheap).
Some types of art can belong to different types of culture. For example, folk, popular and classical music. But there are genres, only mass ones - for example, circus, detective stories, comics, television series, cartoons.
B) Types of culture:
Dominant– characteristic of the majority of members of a given community, dominant. Society is divided into many national ones. professional, age groups - each of them forms its own K - subculture (from the Latin sub - under).
Subculture- this is the culture of large social groups, which has significant differences from the dominant one, but does not oppose it (female, professional...) For example, a youth subculture - leisure, study, transition, virtual reality. It is divided into many subcultures: by music (punks, metalheads, rockers, ravers...); by hobbies (otaku, roleplayers, gamers...); by social beliefs (antifa, yuppies, hippies...), by hobbies (bikers, hackers, writers...)
Counterculture– opposes generally accepted values and norms (criminal, terrorist). CCs are in the process of mutual influence and development (hippies from counterculture became a subculture, classical music rings on a cell phone...). The mutual influence of different types of cultures on each other is called dialogue of cultures. One of its examples is Westernization - the spread of the influence of Western culture throughout the world.
The science. Main features of scientific thinking. Natural, social and human sciences
1. What is science?The science- a form of spiritual activity of people aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws. The term "SCIENCE" is used in three meanings
2. Science as a social institution is a special system of public organizations and institutions that produce, store, disseminate and implement knowledge (research institutes, universities, academic institutes, the Academy of Sciences of the Russian Federation, etc.)
A. Institutionalization (stages of development): originated in the ancient world (mathematics, medicine, astronomy, chemistry); XVI century - formation, acquisition of modern meaning, use of strictly scientific methods; XIX century - specialization, XX century - transformation into the main productive force of society. It is developing in a revolutionary way (Newton - everything is based on laws that the human mind can know; Einstein - everything is relative). Late 1970s – NTR (computer). Two contradictory trends in the development of science – specialization (300 areas in medicine) and integration (geophysics)
B. The main feature of any social institution is role in society .
They especially highlight the social function of science, which consists of transforming social life based on the introduction of scientific achievements into public life (the emergence of new drugs).
According to the main goals, sciences are divided into fundamental = theoretical (history of pedagogy; theory of sociology) and applied = practical (methods of teaching social studies, methods of sociological research).
3. Science as a special way of understanding the world is a system of scientific research, development research
A. Significantly different from other types of knowledge (mythological, everyday, artistic ). Key Features:
1) objectivity – the desire to obtain objective knowledge, to truth
2) essence - penetration into cause-and-effect relationships, structure, development of an object
3) breadth of objects of knowledge (studies everything)
4) special ethics of knowledge (do not distort facts, do not pass off someone else’s as your own, evaluate the results from the perspective of the prospects for the development of mankind)
5) use of special methods, instruments and terms, systems of concepts
6) rationality – obligatory logic, evidence, consistency
7) systematicity (interconnection of knowledge, building a holistic, consistent picture of the world)
8) focus on obtaining new knowledge
B. Levels and methods of scientific knowledge
B. Forms (levels) of scientific knowledge implementation:
2. Problem
3. Hypothesis
4. Concept
5. Pattern
6. Law (simple, universal)
8. Paradigm is the basic principle of understanding the world, underlying all scientific research in a certain historical period. It rarely changes as a result of scientific revolutions (Newtonian paradigm - the whole world is based on laws, a person can know them and act according to them; Einsteinian paradigm - “everything is relative”).
4. As a body of knowledge– these are scientific representations of concepts, theories, brought into an integral system based on certain principles
A. Types of sciences. According to the subject of study, sciences are divided into: natural (study nature), social (study man and society), exact (study signs). Geography is adjacent between the social and natural sciences, since the anthropogenic factor is increasingly changing the geographical environment (social and economic geography). Social and humanitarian (social) sciences: history, psychology, sociology... Social and human sciences are interpenetrated, but if they are distinguished, then: social sciences are the analysis of social processes and the identification of common regular, recurring phenomena in them, and the humanities are the analysis of goals, motives, values of a person and understanding of his thoughts, motives, intentions.
B. Features of social cognition . Social sciences and humanities have specific features associated with the characteristics of social cognition: 1) the coincidence of subject and object → the large role of the subjective factor; 2) limited possibilities of observation and experiment; 3) the uniqueness of the facts; 4) the need to analyze a huge number of facts, the inability to derive laws, but only patterns, and judgment.
Test-training for a social studies lesson in 10th grade. Helps to test students' knowledge on the topic, to work on certain tasks in the Unified State Exam format in social studies 2016. All tasks were selected from the website of Dmitry Gushchin - I will solve the Unified State Exam.
The number of the work on the site is also given so that it is convenient to find and solve it online.
Truth and its criteria Test in Unified State Exam formatOption No. 1629242
1. Pro-chi-tay-te the text below, each word denoting something with a letter.
(A) Is-ti-na - knowledge that is absolutely true, objective, corresponds to what we know me-there and yav-le-ni-yam. (B) It is obvious that a person strives to understand the truth primarily for utility purposes, -what practical benefits. (B) Scientists would do research with the help of special methods: em-pi-ri-che-skih and theo-re-ti-che-skih . (D) On the path to understanding the laws of the new development of the world, scientists should be especially responsible. (D) Ways to know and be able to do knowledgeable work, beyond all doubt, must have moral barriers and filters.
Determine which texts are worn
1) fact-ti-che-khar-rak-ter;
2) character of evaluative judgments;
3) ha-rak-ter theo-re-ti-che-skih po-lo-zhe-niy.
Write down in the table under the letter that denotes the name, the number that you define its character -ter.
2. About the text below, in which a number of words are mentioned. You-take-those words from the pre-la-ga-e-my list that cannot be inserted in place of the blanks.
“Practice is the sensual activity of people, their influence on this or that _______(A) for the purpose of its transformation -zo-va-niya for the satisfaction of the study of the layers of living __________ (B). In terms of practical knowledge, you play three roles. Firstly, it is ________ (In) knowledge, its driving force, gives knowledge of the non-about-ho-di-my fact-ti- Che-sky ma-te-ri-al, under-le-zha-shy generalization and theo-re-ti-che-skoy about-work. Thus, the practice of nurturing knowledge, like the soil of de-re-vo, does not allow him to tear himself away from real life. Secondly, practice is the sphere of application of knowledge. And in this sense, she _______ (G) knowledge. Thirdly, it practically serves _______ (D), measuring the verification of the is-tin-no-sti re-zul-ta-tov of knowledge. Only those results of knowledge that have undergone practical testing can lay claim to _____(E) knowledge. what, on the non-vis-si-most from pro-from-la and for-mis-de-tions.”
The words in the list are given in nominative pas-de-zhe. Each word (word) can be used only once.
You-bi-rai-te-follow-to-va-tel-but one word after another, thought-len-but-for-filling-every miss-pass. Pay attention to the fact that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the blanks.
Spi-juk ter-mi-nov:
In the table below there are letters that denote pro-pu-schen words. Write down in the table under each letter the number of the word you chose.
3. What is the meaning of society's contributions to the understanding of “is-ti-na”? Attracting the knowledge of the society-science course, make two sentences: one sentence, co-der- yearning information about the ab-so-lu-t-is-not, and one sentence, revealing the inter-connection ab-so-lute and from-no-si-tel-noy.
4. For a long time, people believed that the Earth was flat. How does this appear from the point of view of modern scientific views: from the point of view of the noah or for-blue-de-no? Explain your answer and give one example of erroneousness and the truth of the truth in knowledge of the world.
5. It’s up to you to give a detailed answer to the topic “The problem of knowing the world.” Make a plan in accordance with which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more details are in sub-points.
1.4 Knowledge, truth and its criteria. Bogbaz10, §6, 55-60; Bogprof10, §21, 22.
Cognition is a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his consciousness, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.
Types of knowledge:
Philosophical
Artistic
Social
Ordinary
The process of cognition involves:
Subject of knowledge– is a cognizing person, endowed with will and consciousness; the whole society.
Object of knowledge– is a knowable object; the whole world around us.
Stages of knowledge:
sensual(sensitive ) cognition. A person receives information through the senses.
1.1 Feeling- reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects in the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;
1.2 Perception- the formation of a holistic image with the help of objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;
1.3 Performance- a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is preserved in consciousness, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the organs.
2. Rational cognition(using thinking)
2.1 Concept is a form (type) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.
2.2 Judgment - is a form of thought in which a connection is established between individual concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.
2.3 By inference is called obtaining new judgments based on existing ones through the use of the laws of logical thinking.
The essence of the cognition process is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the world around us. Different philosophical schools answered the question about the possibility of understanding the world and obtaining true knowledge in different ways. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge , empiricists- that this can only be done with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that the criterion of truth is only reason.
True- this is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge.
The characteristic feature of truth is:
Objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality.
Subjective side indicates the fact that in its form truth is always subjective, since when it is received in the process of cognition, there is an interaction between the object and the subject of cognition, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part
True:
Absolute truth is complete, unchangeable, once and for all established knowledge about any object or phenomenon
Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge, true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of its development.
Driving force process of cognition, as well as the criterion of truth is practice. In addition to practice, there are And other criteria of truth, in particular formally – logical , which is used when there is no way to rely on practice
DETAILS
6.1. Cognition.
6.1.1. Theory of knowledge.
6.1.2. Cognition and knowledge.
6.1.3. Subject and object of knowledge.
6.2. Forms (sources, stages) of knowledge.
6.2.1. Sensory, experiential knowledge. Feeling. Perception. Performance.
6.2.1. Rational, logical cognition (thinking). Concept. Judgment. Conclusion.
6.2.3. Intuition.
6.3. Sources of knowledge: reason, feeling or intuition?
6.3.1. Rationalism.
6.3.2. Empiricism.
6.3.3. "The Way of the Bee" A compromise between empiricism and rationalism.
6.3.4. Intuitionism. Types of intuition.
6.4. What is truth?
6.4.1. Theories of truth.
6.4.2. Objective, absolute and relative truth.
6.4.3. Does truth exist? Agnosticism.
6.4.4. What is the reason for the relativity of human knowledge?
6.4.5. Criteria of truth.
6.1
. Cognition.
6.1.1. Theory of knowledge.
Epistemology(from Greek. gnosis - knowledge and logos - teaching) - the doctrine of the essence, patterns and forms of knowledge.
6.1.2. Cognition and knowledge.
Cognition– 1) the process of comprehending reality, accumulating and comprehending data obtained in the experience of human interaction with the outside world; 2) the process of active reflection and reproduction of reality in the human mind, the result of which is new knowledge about the world.
Knowledge– 1) a practice-tested result of knowledge of reality, its correct reflection in human thinking; 2) (in a broad sense) any kind of information; 3) (in the narrow sense) information confirmed by scientific means.
6.1.3. Subject and object of knowledge.
The process of cognition presupposes the presence of two sides: the cognizing person (the subject of cognition) and the cognizable object (the object of cognition).
Subject of knowledge(from lat. subjectus – underlying, underlying) – 1) the bearer of objective-practical activity and cognition (an individual or a social group), a source of activity aimed at an object.
Basic concepts of the subject of cognition.
1) Psychological subject of cognition (isolated subject): the subject is equal to the human individual performing a cognitive act.
This position is close to our everyday experience. The cognizing subject is considered as a passive recorder of external influences, reflecting the object with varying degrees of adequacy. This approach does not take into account the active and constructive nature of the subject’s behavior - the fact that the latter is capable of not only reflecting, but also shaping the object of knowledge.
The idea that the knowing mind passively contemplates the world and in this way cognizes it developed in the 17th century (John Locke).
2) Transcendental subject of cognition: there is an invariant and stable “cognitive core” in every person, which ensures the unity of cognition in different eras (Immanuel Kant).
Transcendental(from lat. trascedes – going beyond) – relating to intuitive, a priori (inexperienced or pre-experienced) conditions of the possibility of knowledge. Transcendental is the opposite of empirical.
The results of cognition reflect not only the properties of the subject being studied, but also how we organize the learning process (means and methods of cognition), and the characteristics of ourselves (our positions, previously accumulated experience).
3) Collective subject of knowledge: the main knowing subject – the source of knowledge of nature and society – is considered to be all of humanity.
Object of knowledge(from lat. objectum - subject) - that which opposes the subject in his cognitive activity. The subject itself can act as an object.
The object of cognition means a part of the external world or all real fragments of existence that confront the subject and are specifically subjected to research. So, for example, a person is the object of study of many sciences - biology, medicine, psychology, sociology, philosophy, etc.
The subject is a creative principle actively operating in cognition. An object is something that opposes the subject and towards which his cognitive activity is directed.
6.2
. Forms (sources, stages) of knowledge.
6.2.1. Sensory, experiential cognition.
Forms of sensory knowledge: 1) sensation, 2) perception, 3) representation.
1) Feeling– a reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process, arising as a result of their direct impact on the senses.
The classifications of sensations use different bases. According to modality, visual, gustatory, auditory, tactile and other sensations are distinguished.
2) Perception- a sensory image of a holistic picture of an object, process, phenomenon that directly affects the senses.
3) Performance- a sensory image of objects and phenomena stored in consciousness without their direct impact on the senses.
The degree of generalization of a particular representation can be different, and therefore a distinction is made between individual and general representations. Through language, a representation is translated into an abstract concept.
6.2.2. Rational, logical cognition (thinking).
Forms of rational knowledge: 1) concept, 2) judgment, 3) inference.
1)Concept– 1) thought that isolates objects from the subject area and collects them into a class based on their common and distinctive features; 2) a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections, relationships of objects and phenomena.
Volume concepts – a class of objects isolated from a set of objects and generalized in a concept.
For example, the volume of the concept “product” means the set of all products offered to the market both now and in the past or in the future.
Content concepts - a set of essential and distinctive features of an object, quality or set of homogeneous objects reflected in this concept.
For example, the content of the concept of “corruption” is a combination of two essential features: “the fusion of state structures with the structure of the criminal world” and “bribery and corruption of public and political figures, government officials and officials.”
Law of the inverse relationship between content and volume: the wider the scope of a concept, the poorer it is in content, i.e. specific distinctive features.
2) Judgment– 1) a thought that affirms or denies something about the objects of knowledge; 2) a thought that asserts the presence or absence of some state of affairs.
Example: Mammalian teeth have roots.
3)Inference– 1) mental connection of several judgments and the derivation of a new judgment from them; 2) obtaining new judgments based on existing ones using logical thinking.
Any conclusion consists of premises, conclusion and conclusion. The premises of an inference are the initial judgments from which a new judgment is derived.
A conclusion is a new judgment obtained logically from the premises. The logical transition from premises to conclusion is called a conclusion.
Types of inferences:
1) deductive, 2) inductive, 3) traductive (by analogy).
Deduction(from lat. deductio - deduction) - deducing the particular from the general; a path of thinking that leads from the general to the particular, from the general to the particular.
The general form of deduction is syllogism, the premises of which form the indicated general position, and the conclusions form the corresponding particular judgment.
Example:
1st premise: mammalian teeth have roots;
2nd premise: a dog is a mammal;
Conclusion: Dog teeth have roots.
Induction (lat. inductio - guidance) - a way of reasoning from particular provisions to general conclusions.
Traduction (lat. traductio - movement) is a logical conclusion in which premises and conclusions are judgments of the same generality.
A traditional inference is an analogy.
Types of tradition: 1) conclusion from individual to individual, 2) conclusion from particular to particular, 3) conclusion from general to general.
6.2.3. Intuition(in medieval Latin intuitio, from intueor - I look closely) - comprehension of the truth by direct observation of it without justification through evidence.
Intuition– 1) the ability of human consciousness, in some cases, to grasp the truth by instinct, by guesswork, relying on previous experience, on previously acquired knowledge; 2) insight; 3) direct cognition, cognitive premonition, cognitive insight; 4) ultra-fast thought process.
6.3
. Sources of knowledge: reason, feeling or intuition?
6.3.1. Rationalism.
Socrates and his student Plato insisted that the basis of cognition and learning are general concepts called universals.
Universals(from lat. universalis – general) – general concepts. The ontological (existential) status of the universal is one of the central problems of medieval philosophy (dispute about the universal of the 10th-14th centuries): do universals exist 1) “before things”, like their eternal ideal prototypes (Platonism, extreme realism), 2) “in things" (Aristotelianism, moderate realism), 3) "after things" in human thinking (nominalism, conceptualism).
These universals are already contained in the human mind from birth and thus knowledge consists of remembering what we already know.
Anamnesis(from Greek. anamnesis recollection, recollection) - according to Plato, knowledge, since all knowledge is the soul’s recollection of the ideas that it contemplated before its union with the body.
A point of view similar to Plato’s on the source and foundations of our knowledge was defended by the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes. To test the reliability of our knowledge, he proposed starting all knowledge with doubt about the available information about the world. By successively eliminating facts that did not stand the test of the principle of doubt, Descartes came to the conclusion that there are only two facts whose truth cannot be doubted.
1) “I think, therefore I exist” (Cogito ergo sum).
2) The second undoubted truth is the existence of God.
The distinctive features of undoubted truths, which allow us to separate them from lies and delusions, are clarity and distinctness. On this basis we can have complete confidence in the truth of all mathematical knowledge, since mathematics deals exclusively with clear and distinct innate ideas.
The theories of knowledge of Plato, Descartes and others like them are called rationalistic. They claim that with the help of reason alone, true knowledge can be obtained. This knowledge is knowledge of universals (general concepts) that are innate to us, and from which particular knowledge can be obtained.
Rationalism(from lat. rationalis reasonable, ratio reason) – 1) a philosophical direction that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior.
6.3.2. Empiricism.
Empiricism(from Greek. empeiria - experience), a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of reliable knowledge. Empiricism was formed in the 17th – 18th centuries. (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume).
Sensationalism(from lat. sensus - perception, feeling), a direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge. Sensualism is an early form of empiricism.
The philosophers who represent it deny the existence of innate knowledge and are generally skeptical about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge based on reason alone.
John Locke tried to prove that we have no innate ideas, and all knowledge comes from impressions received from the senses. The human mind from birth can be likened to a blank slate ( tabula rasa), devoid of any images of ideas.
6.3.3. " The way of the bee».
The question of what we humans can know reliably about the internal and external world is insoluble from the extreme positions of rationalistic and empirical theories. The founder of English empiricism, Francis Bacon, drew attention to this with the help of the allegories “the path of the ant,” “the path of the spider,” and “the path of the bee.”
« Path of the ant“is a method of extreme empiricism, characterized by the simple collection of facts obtained on the basis of sensory impressions, without their systematization and comprehension.
« Way of the Spider” well illustrates the method of extreme rationalism, which attempts to derive knowledge from a few innate ideas. In this way he is similar to a spider, weaving a web from the material that he himself produces.
« The way of the bee“removes the extremes of empiricism and rationalism and represents a two-stage process of cognition: feelings provide data about the properties of objects, which are then processed by the mind using the methods and principles of theoretical thinking.
6.3.4. Intuition as a source of knowledge.
Intutivism- a movement in philosophy that sees intuition as the only reliable means of knowledge.
There have been cases where the formulated results of “insights” lasted for centuries before they received due recognition, were logically justified and found practical application. These, in particular, include Leonardo da Vinci's prediction of the possibility of making heavier-than-air aircraft, Roger Bacon's formulation (though not entirely clear) of the law of constancy of composition and the law of shares (multiple ratios) in chemistry, Francis Bacon's foresight of the possibility of creating diving vessels and the ability to maintain the vital functions of the body when vital organs are removed.
Types of intuition: 1) sensual, 2) intellectual, 3) mystical.
6.4
. True.
6.4.1. What is truth?
1) Ontological
(existential) theory of truth.
Paul Florensky. "The Pillar and Ground of Truth" (1914):
“What is truth?” Pilate asked Truth. He did not receive an answer, because he did not receive it because his question was in vain. The Living Answer stood before him, but Pilate did not see its truth in the Truth. Suppose that the Lord, not only with his screaming silence, but also with quiet words, would answer the Roman Procurator: “I am the Truth.” But even then, again, the questioner would be left without an answer, because he did not know how to recognize the Truth as the truth, he could not be convinced of its authenticity.”
2) Classic ( correspondent) theory of truth.
Aristotle: “To say of a being that it does not exist, or of a non-existent that it is, is to speak falsely; and to say that what exists is and what does not exist means to say what is true.”
True– correspondence (correspondence) between facts and statements about these facts. Truth is a property of statements, judgments or beliefs.
3) Coherent theory of truth (Spinoza, Leibniz, Bradley). Truth is the consistency of a judgment and belief with all statements, judgments or beliefs included in the system to which this judgment belongs.
Coherence(from lat. cohaeres in connection) is the coordinated occurrence of several processes over time.
4) Conventionalism.
Henri Poincare (1854-1912):
“The fundamental principles of Euclid's geometry are nothing more than an agreement, and it would be as unreasonable to inquire whether they are true or false as to ask whether the metric system is true or false. These agreements are only convenient."
Convention (Latin. сonventio rapprochement, meeting; people's assembly; agreement, contract, deal) – agreement.
5) Pragmatism (Greek. pragma - deed, action): true beliefs (ideas, beliefs) are those beliefs that lead to actions leading to desired or successful results.
6.4.2. Objective, absolute and relative truth.
Objective truth is the content of knowledge, which is determined by the subject being studied itself, does not depend on the preferences and interests of a person.
Absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about reality; that element of titles which cannot be refuted in the future.
Relative truth is incomplete, limited knowledge; such elements of knowledge that in the process of development of knowledge will change and be replaced by new ones.
Each relative truth means a step forward in the knowledge of absolute truth; if it is scientific, it contains elements, grains of absolute truth.
Absolute truth and relative truth are different levels (forms) of objective truth.
Misconception- deviation from the truth, which we accept as the truth.
The first classification of errors was given by Bacon under the name “idols.”
Some philosophers see the cause of errors in human will (Leibniz, Schopenhauer), while most attribute them to reason or social interests (Marx).
Lie- a statement that does not correspond to the truth, expressed in this form consciously - and this differs from a fallacy.
6.4.3. Does truth exist? Agnosticism.
Agnosticism(Greek a denial, gnosis knowledge) is a philosophical doctrine that denies, in whole or in part, the possibility of knowing the world. Agnosticism limits the role of science only to the knowledge of phenomena.
The opposite of agnosticism is epistemological optimism.
Optimism(from Latin. optimus – best) – 1) the idea that the world is dominated by a positive principle, goodness; a joyful perception of life, imbued with faith in a reasonable and fair better future. The opposite of optimism is pessimism.
Supporters of epistemological optimism do not reject the complexity of knowledge, the complexity and difficulty of identifying the essence of things. At the same time, its different representatives have different arguments proving the inconsistency of agnosticism.
Some of them rely on the clarity and distinctness of thought about objects and their essence, others on the general significance of the results obtained, others on the impossibility of human existence without an adequate reflection of the laws of the objective world, and others point to practice as the leading criterion in determining reliable knowledge about essence of things, etc.
6.4.4. What is the reason for the relativity of human knowledge?
1) The world is endlessly changing.
2) Human cognitive capabilities are limited.
3) The possibilities of knowledge depend on the real historical conditions of their time and are determined by the level of development of spiritual culture, material production, and the available means of observation and experiment.
4) Features of human cognitive activity.
Bacon's doctrine of the ghosts of knowledge.
Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626) - English statesman and philosopher, author of the famous saying: “Knowledge is power, and he who masters knowledge will become powerful.”
True knowledge is hampered by various objective and subjective factors, which Bacon calls “idols” or “ghosts” of knowledge:
1) Idols of the family are contained in the very nature of man, in the limitations of his mind and in the imperfection of his senses. Idols of the race distort knowledge and introduce anthropomorphic elements into it.
2) Idols of the Cave: source – individual characteristics of a person, his origin, upbringing, education, etc.
3) Market idols generated by social relations and the conventions associated with them: language, concepts of everyday and scientific thinking;
4) Theater idols caused by blind faith in the authority of individuals and theories.
6.4.5. What is the criterion (measurement) of truth?
Criterion– (from Greek. kriterion - a means of judgment) - 1) a sign on the basis of which something is assessed, determined or classified; 2) a measure of evaluation.
Criterion of truth- a means of verifying the truth of human knowledge.
1) Empiricism: data from sensory experience;
2) Rationalism: evidence, which is achieved through intellectual intuition (Descartes), “innate intuitions” (Leibniz), logical consistency of theory;
3) Conventionalism: convenience and simplicity of the theory;
With this approach, the question of the truth or falsity of our knowledge is completely eliminated.
4) Pragmatism: truth is the usefulness or performance of an idea: “... true is simply beneficial in the way we think”;
5) Marxism: the criterion of truth is practice = material production + scientific experiment.
Practice(from Greek. praktikos – active, active) – material, goal-setting activity of people.
Functions of practice in the process of cognition:
1) starting point, source of knowledge (existing sciences are brought to life by the needs of practice);
2) the basis of knowledge (it is thanks to the transformation of the surrounding world that the most profound knowledge of the properties of the surrounding world occurs);
3) practice is the driving force behind the development of society;
4) practice is the goal of knowledge (a person learns the world in order to use the results of knowledge in practical activities);
5) practice is the criterion of the truth of knowledge.
Main types of practice: 1) scientific experiment, 2) production of material goods and 3) socially transformative activity of the masses.
Practice structure: 1) need, 2) goal, 3) motive, 4) purposeful activity, 5) subject, 6) means and 7) result.
!!!
Practice 1) does not cover the entire real world, moreover, 2) practical confirmation of a theory may not occur immediately, but after many years, but this does not mean that this theory is not true. 3) Such a criterion of truth is relative, since practice itself develops, improves and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition.
The idea of complementarity of criteria of truth: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.
