doi: 10.18101/1994-0866-2017-2-12-19
FACTORS OF MODERN SOCIETY DETERMINING HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
© Kenispaev Zhumageldy Kubzhasarovich
Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of the Department of Philosophy and Cultural Studies, Altai State Pedagogical University Russia, 656031, Barnaul, st. Molodezhnaya, 55 E-mail: [email protected]
The article analyzes the complex mechanism of formation of human consciousness in modern society. The author suggests that the study of factors influencing the consciousness of an individual is one of the important tasks of philosophy. It is the spiritual sphere of a person that determines his behavior, thinking and worldview. Currently, it is necessary to state the existence of an entire industry of consciousness, that is, recently the impact on consciousness is not of an individual nature, as it was in traditional societies, but represents an entire industry that allows the formation of a certain state of mind among recipients. If in the era of the emergence of philosophical thought, subject-subject relationships occupied a special place, that is, the “teacher-student” principle was in effect, today the process of socialization and transfer of experience is increasingly subject-object in nature.
Key words: man, consciousness, society, philosophy, culture, spirituality, ideology, science, media, civilization.
In scientific and popular literature you can often find the term “consciousness industry.” This concept reflects the peculiarities of relationships between people in the modern era as accurately as possible. There is no universal definition of this term yet, but an operational definition can be applied. At a first approximation, this term should be understood as the mechanisms of manipulation of human consciousness, the ability of certain structures (willingly or unwittingly) to form a social consciousness that “objectively” reflects the existing state of affairs. The influence on the process of formation of a system of values, life attitudes, type of thinking and, in general, a person’s worldview is today an integral part of state ideology. It is no longer possible not to see or not notice this, and by and large it is even dangerous. Intersubjectivity presupposes being in a social system, the essence of which is largely determined by the degree of development of the individual’s consciousness. I would say this: there are directly proportional relationships between the level of development of an individual’s consciousness and the characteristics of interpersonal communications. Perhaps this is said too categorically, but the goal here is to identify this problem as clearly as possible within the framework of philosophy.
The degree of solidarity and communication between people is increasing every year. Dialogue and synthesis of different cultures have become the basis for the emergence of
the emergence of a multicultural society. It would seem that there is something wrong with this process. But this is only at first glance; upon closer examination of the state of affairs, we are faced with negative trends in the process of formation of the spiritual world of modern man. We have come to the point that, in an effort to establish harmonious, close relationships between people, we began to deny the individuality and uniqueness of a person’s inner world. From now on, not only external resemblance to other people is required (this is especially important among young people), but even thoughts must be unified. Of course, there is no official legal basis for such requirements yet. But there are so-called unwritten laws, which in many respects, and primarily in their binding nature, are superior to official laws.
Even an entire infrastructure has emerged called “Public Relations” (PR), which is increasingly involved in shaping the mentality of the younger generations in our country. True, one cannot say that this is a purely Russian invention; the whole world already lives under the dictates of people who can influence human consciousness in one way or another. Knowledge of the mechanisms of formation of an individual’s inner world is used in many cases against a person. In the broadest sense, PR is influencing the consciousness of people for a specific purpose. Like all other areas of public life, PR has some philosophical foundations. The question is formulated as follows: what had to happen for modern man to lose the autonomy of his consciousness? On the other hand, why is the average person not alarmed by this and is he satisfied with the position of a passive observer and experimental subject of various PR companies?
The influence on human consciousness, as noted above, always has some purpose. In this sense, there is a certain connection between PR and ideology. But there are traditional forms of determination of human consciousness, mechanisms of socialization of the individual in the broadest sense of the word, for example, the education system. So why is there a need for new forms of influence on humans? We think that this is due, first of all, to the revaluation of values in the modern era; today there is a radical change in human value orientations. Strange as it may seem, humanity has encountered this many times already. For example, in Greek culture of the 5th century BC. e. In this era, the problem of truth arises acutely. The Sophists proceeded from the principle of relativity in explaining moral and scientific truths, and another tradition, led by the great Socrates, affirms the thesis of the self-sufficiency of truths, of their absoluteness. It is not without reason that Socrates’ student Plato creates the concept of the existence of a transcendental world of general ideas and absolute truths. Moreover, this intelligible eternal world is in no way connected with the empirical world, in which everything is subject to change.
It seems to us that influence, or rather, manipulation of human consciousness, is necessary, first of all, to introduce new guidelines and new semantic loads into their consciousness. It can be assumed that the foundation is being prepared for the construction of a civilization with completely changed
real life guidelines (at least from the point of view of people of traditional culture). Such preparation is carried out very competently, if we keep in mind that the ideologists have chosen human consciousness as the main object of influence. Indeed, no matter what we say, it is the spiritual sphere of a person that determines his behavior, thinking and worldview.
The ideological machine views a person not as an individual, but as a unit of a crowd; it is oriented not on the human “I”, but on the generalizing “we”. This principle applies in the education system and in all other spheres of public life. Mass character, which is incompatible with the development of human creative potential, has become one of the main characteristics of modernity. It can be argued that a process is underway aimed at zombifying the human psyche; it is increasingly turning from a goal into a means of the state and other interested structures. The mass psychoses, riots, persecution on national, party and other grounds observed today are links in one chain. By and large, a dependent, zombified consciousness can be directed to solving any problems, and primarily destructive ones, since they do not require a creative approach or intellectual effort. But this is a dangerous weapon that can at any moment get out of control and strike its own owners. In many of the events taking place in Russia in recent years, one can feel an invisible hand skillfully manipulating an unreasonable and angry crowd. The search for enemies does not stop, because it is they who prevent us from living with dignity, as official ideologists claim. It can be assumed that in this way people are distracted from the main reasons by the unsettled state of their lives.
Modern man is becoming increasingly dependent on external conditions, which contributes little to the formation of his personality. An unfree individual only imagines himself to be free; he is not even aware of his slavish position, especially his dependence on lower instincts and passions. No one anymore believes in Socratic intellectual idealism, according to which there is a directly proportional relationship between true knowledge and virtuous human activity. All this speaks of the complexity and ambiguity of our consciousness, of the need to create non-trivial means to reveal its essence. Creating conditions conducive to the development of everyone's creative powers is the cherished goal to which every society strives. “Education of the soul,” writes V.P. Zinchenko, “is an eternal problem. Each new generation of people is looking for their own ways to solve it. And the fact that humanity still exists is the best evidence that such paths are eventually found.”
In our country there is an active struggle for the “minds and souls” of young people. The party in power does not so much pursue the goal of ensuring a happier life for citizens as it tries to stay in power at any cost. To promote certain standards of life, all possible means in the hands of the ruling class are used. Thus, public consciousness is formed, which turns out to be
has a direct influence on the process of formation of the individual’s consciousness. K. Marx, as a real scientist, revealed the secret of the mechanism of enrichment of capitalists and made his discovery public. We know what happened next - the whole world was shaken by social cataclysms for a century. Renouncing the results of their own labor, people fought for inalienable individual rights. “Social psychoanalyst” K. Marx revealed the secret of the latent formation of human consciousness in conditions of capitalist relations. And this discovery is one of the first attempts to free man from the industry of manipulation, and in a broad sense, from the enslavement of man by man. In this regard, it becomes clear why at the end of the last century in Russia the teachings of Marxism began to be sharply criticized. The ideologists of the new relations knew that this teaching was a kind of weapon of disadvantaged people against the dictates of the wolfish laws of capitalism. Knowledge is indeed a force that cannot be ignored if we wish to explain the mechanisms of a particular social conflict.
V. A. Lektorsky argues that texts and knowledge are a necessary element of any civilization, and if the former disappear, then there will be no humanity as such. It's hard to disagree with these words. But knowledge is different from knowledge. Therefore, in order to establish a bourgeois mentality in Russia, they began to propagate Western scientific and fiction literature of appropriate content. But special credit, of course, belongs to the film industry. This is how the element of acquisitiveness and philistinism was identified and cultivated in the structure of human nature. The period of primitive accumulation of capital is a terrible time when the expression Homo homini lupus est can be taken literally. But the financial oligarchy, due to the fear of losing everything, somewhat lost its position, and the brutal exploitation of people was replaced by a more liberal economic policy. Capital, merging with power into a single whole, with the help of mass communication forms the spiritual world of man that is adequate from their point of view. Official propaganda pursues the goal of transforming the attitudes and values of society into the internal principles and norms of each individual. The guidelines existing in the human mind largely determine human behavior. Of course, the value system of young people reflects the general spiritual situation that has developed in Russia. Today, the consequences of introducing purely selfish aspirations into the consciousness of Russians have become clearly visible. And if we take into account that values are formed during the period of the so-called primary socialization of the individual, then we can conclude that a whole generation has already gone through the “school” of consumer individualism. J. Huizinga, to characterize the undeveloped, infantile consciousness of a person, introduces the concept of puerilism, by which he understands the sphere of activity in which a person behaves as if by the standards of adolescence or youth. “This includes,” writes J. Huizinga, “for example, the easily satisfied, but never satiated need for banal entertainment, the thirst for crude sensations, the craving for mass spectacles... The state of the spirit of an immature youth, not associated with rebirth.”
nutrition, form and tradition, in every area he strives to gain an advantage and succeeds too well in this.”
True, it must be added that such “success” is temporary and will soon disappear like youth itself. The modern industry of consciousness exploits child labor, uses youthful enthusiasm and inexhaustible energy. When a young man who has no basic education, no proper upbringing, no experience, is told that he is talented and is “promoted” by making money from it, then in this case, from my point of view, the young man is inflicted with deep psychological trauma, from which it is difficult to recover. In such situations, education comes down to the habit of behaving according to a certain stereotype. It’s hard to look at a teenager who has been convinced that he is a great talent and has no equal in the world. In fact, this is already a morally damaged person who can no longer be educated. Manipulators skillfully hide the “strings” with which they command their mannequins.
F. Bacon believed that there is an inversely proportional relationship between a person’s external beauty and his inner world. “It is almost not observed,” writes F. Bacon, “that very beautiful people in other respects have great virtues, as if nature, in releasing them into the world, was rather concerned with preventing mistakes, rather than with producing perfection.” . And therefore they turn out to be devoid of shortcomings, but do not have sublimity of spirit and care more about manners than about virtue.”
Beauty, from the point of view of the English scientist, makes youth dissolute, for which one has to pay in old age. On the other hand, of course, a young man in his creative impulse should feel that he, as they say in such cases, “grabbed God by the beard,” and the critical comments of more experienced comrades should not be destructive, aimed at eradicating youthful behavior ahead of schedule. maximalism. It seems that even after criticism, a young man should believe that it is the beard in his hands and that it belongs to God. But nevertheless, familiarization with traditions and centuries-old culture is more useful, from our point of view, than nihilism fueled by selfishness and nonconformism. There are double standards of morality in our society. If in the process of teaching and upbringing ideas of goodness and justice are introduced into the consciousness of students, then in real life they are faced with outright lies of officials, injustice, shameless theft from the state treasury of taxpayers’ money, etc. Inconsistent with each other are introduced into the consciousness of young people values, on the one hand, through the process of training and education, and the other source is the real Russian reality. If these contradictions cannot be resolved, the younger generation will look for a “way out” in the world of illusions with the help of drugs and alcohol.
At all times, people have made considerable efforts to exert a certain influence on the psyche and consciousness of another person. There are entire traditions aimed at some transformation
tion of consciousness. Particular attention was paid to the category of knowledge, since it occupies a central place in the content of our consciousness. Knowledge is usually defined as the ideal expression in a symbolic form of the objective properties and connections of the world. There is a tradition that recognizes knowledge as the only element of human consciousness. The thesis about the determining role of knowledge in consciousness has remained relevant for thousands of years. A society that does not care about its younger generation has no prospects for the future, it is doomed to extinction. The intellectual potential of society is not some kind of abstraction; it consists of individual mental powers inherent in specific people. Such potential is formed over many decades and is the result of the functioning of a well-organized education system. Social differentiation in society has also given rise to differentiation in the field of education. Currently, there are both regular schools and various kinds of lyceums, colleges, and gymnasiums. Without a doubt, new forms of education are aimed at increasing the level of education and increasing the effectiveness of educational work. But with all the advantages of new forms of education, it is impossible not to note some negative aspects of this process. In particular, the concentration of the most gifted students in elite educational institutions bleeds the regular school.
If consciousness is a special type of energy and is a manifestation of the creative essence of man, then this energy is found in all areas of his social practice. Therefore, the sphere of education can be considered as responsible for the formation and “distribution” of this type of energy. In the course of training and education, a peculiar accumulation and transformation of this energy occurs into creatively active and socially significant activity. Sharp social differentiation has led to the fact that the education system has become an arena of struggle between various parties. Numerous political parties and groups have chosen the education system from schools to universities as the object of ideological indoctrination. The calculation, of course, is correct: whoever controls the “mind and heart” of the younger generations today will reign supreme tomorrow. Modern education is a sphere of struggle, a miniature version of competing aspirations and tendencies. In accordance with this, an educated person is repeatedly determined in his spiritual horizon.
So what can be done in this era of change? What are the chances of actually resisting the process of zombification of people? The sphere of pedagogical activity, without a doubt, is a kind of outpost of this struggle. It seems that a teacher’s personal example is a very effective tool. We must remember that there is a sacred world and a profane world. The field of education deals to a greater extent with the first category of phenomena. Knowledge is the sacred experience of humanity, which has its own status and is in no way connected with the electoral interests of one or another group of people. Therefore, in the learning process, the slogan will be relevant - let’s distract ourselves from what is coming and take care of the eternal.
In addition, in order to form independent thinking, it is necessary to introduce a dose of doubt into a person’s consciousness, so that he does not just take his word for it, but is able and willing to check new information. If it is necessary to raise a person who is not only convinced of the power of knowledge, but also knows how to apply knowledge in practice, then you need to mix a dose of skepticism with the “undoubted”.
Currently, human social practice is becoming more and more intellectual; he works more and more with information, with knowledge, than with material objects. But too much information can be much more dangerous than too little. Human use of technology has both positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, it is now impossible for us to do without modern methods of technical information processing. But universal computer literacy, among other things, serves as fertile ground for the education of an “average” person, not burdened with specific physical and mental distinctive features. Using the unconditional authority of science in the public consciousness, as well as methods of scientific analysis, the media are trying to act as the ultimate truth. In the minds of the individual, they gradually turn into “intermediaries” between the world and man. Perhaps this is why various information and analytical programs are so popular in our country, which essentially carry out the thinking process for each of us and provide the consumer with a “finished product” in the form of political and other declarations.
Literature
1. Zinchenko V.P. Reflections on the soul and its education // Questions of philosophy. 2002. No. 2. P. 119-136.
2. Huizinga J. Homo Ludens (Man Playing). M.: Eksmo-Press, 2001. 352 p.
3. Bacon F. About beauty // Works: in 2 volumes. M.: Mysl, 1972. T. 2. P. 347-486.
FACTORS OF MODERN SOCIETY, DETERMINING HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
Zhumageldy K. Kenispaev
Dr. Sci. (Philos.), Prof., Department of Philosophy and Culturology, Altai State
Pedagogical University
55 Molodezhnaya St., Barnaul 656031, Russia
Email: [email protected]
The article analyzes the complex mechanism of forming human consciousness in modern society. We suggest that investigation of the factors influencing the consciousness of an individual is one of the important tasks of philosophy. It is the spiritual sphere that determines behavior, thinking and world view of a human. At present, it is necessary to certain the existence of an entire industry of consciousness. Recently the impact on consciousness is not of an individual character, as it was in traditional societies, today it is an entire branch that allows forming a certain mentality in recipients. If in the period of developing philosophical thought the special place was occupied by subject-to-subject relations, or the "teacher-pupil" principle, at the present stage the process of socialization and social transmission has more subjective-objective character.
Keywords: human, consciousness, society, philosophy, culture, spirituality, ideology, science, mass media, civilization.
7. Social, individual, mass consciousness
General consciousness(width cm) – ideas, views, theories, perceptions, feelings, moods, cat warehouse in society, reflection and service of social existence. (In narrow cm) - a defined spirit of the system, including socially significant ones, fixed and used in the practical activities of people, resulting in an ideal reflection of action, general existence.
The general consciousness is related to society as a whole, so it should be considered as the aggregate characteristics of the entire social system as a whole. General consciousness has its own laws of development. It is the head of other subsystems and instinctively influences all subsystems.
Within the general consciousness, clan groups of consciousness were distinguished. Durkheim: a group thinks and feels completely differently than its members would do if they were divided.
Structure of general consciousness: ordinary (a collection of ideas, ideas, feelings, received in everyday life) and theoretical (systematization of knowledge, aimed at revealing the essence of the world, general existence). They include sublevels in the department of dominant 1 of 2 aspects: the cognitive aspect (the desire of people to know and reflect things) and the value aspect (evaluation in terms of needs and ideals).
At the everyday level, emphases: empirical knowledge (an element of knowledge obtained as a result of superficial contact with action) and general psychology (the essence of feelings, habits, traditions, which is formed into the conditions of everyday life. People who have these ideas -I, introduced the OD class).
On theory ur vyd: ideology (value aspect) and science (cognition). Science is the object of correct knowledge about the world, here in 1st place is knowledge about the world. Ideology is an orderly system of ideas and theories, reflecting action from the position of interests of defined social groups or society as a whole. The needs are realized and there are interests.
Social consciousness Consciousness is not only individual, personal, but also includes a social function. The structure of social consciousness is complex and multifaceted, and is in dialectical interaction with the consciousness of the individual. In the structure of social consciousness there are such levels as theoretical and everyday consciousness. The first forms social psychology, the second – ideology. Ordinary consciousness is formed spontaneously in the everyday life of people. Theoretical consciousness reflects the essence, patterns of the surrounding natural and social world. Social consciousness appears in various forms: socio-political views and theories, legal views, science, philosophy, morality, art, religion. The differentiation of social consciousness in its modern form is the result of long-term development. Primitive society corresponded to a primitive, undifferentiated consciousness. Mental labor was not separated from physical labor and mental labor was directly woven into labor relations and into everyday life. The first in the historical development of man were such forms of social consciousness as morality, art, and religion. Then, as human society develops, the entire spectrum of forms of social consciousness arises, which is allocated to a special sphere of social activity. Let's consider individual forms of social consciousness: - political consciousness is a systematized, theoretical expression of public views on the political organization of society, on the forms of the state, on relations between various social groups, classes, parties, on relations with other states and nations; - legal consciousness in theoretical form expresses the legal consciousness of society, the nature and purpose of legal relations, norms and institutions, issues of legislation, court, and prosecutor's office. The goal is to establish a legal order that corresponds to the interests of a particular society; - morality– a system of views and assessments that regulate the behavior of individuals, a means of educating and strengthening certain moral principles and relationships; - art– a special form of human activity associated with the mastery of reality through artistic images; - religion and philosophy – forms of social consciousness that are most distant from material conditions. Religion is older than philosophy and is a necessary stage in the development of humanity. Expresses the surrounding world through a worldview system based on faith and religious postulates. Social and individual consciousness are in close unity. Social consciousness is interindividual in nature and does not depend on the individual. For specific people it is objective. Each individual throughout his life, through relationships with other people, through training and education, experiences the influence of social consciousness, although he does not relate to this influence passively, but selectively, actively. Social norms of consciousness spiritually influence the individual, forming his worldview, moral principles, and aesthetic ideas. Social consciousness can be defined as the public mind, which develops and functions according to its own laws. The views of an individual that most fully meet the interests of the era and time, after the end of individual existence, become the property of society. For example, the creativity of outstanding writers, thinkers, scientists, etc. Individual consciousness in this case, manifested in the work of a particular person, acquires the status of social consciousness, replenishes and develops it, giving it the features of a certain era. Consciousness cannot be derived from the mere process of reflecting objects of the natural world: the “subject-object” relationship cannot give rise to consciousness. To do this, the subject must be included in a more complex system of social practice, in the context of public life. Each of us, coming into this world, inherits a spiritual culture, which we must master in order to acquire our own human essence and be able to think like a human being. We enter into a dialogue with public consciousness, and this consciousness opposing us is a reality, the same as, for example, the state or the law. We can rebel against this spiritual force, but just as in the case of the state, our rebellion can turn out to be not only senseless, but also tragic if we do not take into account those forms and methods of spiritual life that objectively oppose us. In order to transform the historically established system of spiritual life, you must first master it. Social consciousness arose simultaneously and in unity with the emergence of social existence. Nature as a whole is indifferent to the existence of the human mind, and without it society could not only arise and develop, but also exist for a single day and hour. Due to the fact that society is an objective-subjective reality, social being and social consciousness are, as it were, “loaded” with each other: without the energy of consciousness, social being is static and even dead. But while emphasizing the unity of social existence and social consciousness, we must not forget their differences, their specific disunity. The historical relationship between social existence and social consciousness in their relative independence is realized in such a way that, if in the early stages of the development of society social consciousness was formed under the direct influence of existence, then later this influence acquired an increasingly indirect character - through the state, political, legal relations, etc. , and the reverse influence of social consciousness on existence is, on the contrary, acquiring an increasingly direct character. The very possibility of such a direct influence of social consciousness on social existence lies in the ability of consciousness to correctly reflect existence. Consciousness as a reflection and as an active creative activity represents the unity of two inseparable aspects of the same process: in its influence on existence, it can both evaluate it, revealing its hidden meaning, predict it, and transform it through the practical activity of people. And therefore, the social consciousness of the era can not only reflect existence, but actively contribute to its restructuring. This is the historically established function of social consciousness, which makes it an objectively necessary and really existing element of any social structure. Possessing an objective nature and immanent laws of development, social consciousness can either lag behind or ahead of existence within the framework of the evolutionary process that is natural for a given society. In this regard, social consciousness can play the role of an active stimulator of the social process, or a mechanism for its inhibition. The powerful transformative force of social consciousness is capable of influencing all existence as a whole, revealing the meaning of its evolution and predicting prospects. In this regard, it differs from the subjective (in the sense of subjective reality) finite and limited individual consciousness. The power of the social whole over the individual is expressed here in the individual’s obligatory acceptance of historically established forms of spiritual development of reality, those methods and means by which the production of spiritual values is carried out, the semantic content that has been accumulated by humanity for centuries and without which the formation of personality is impossible.
Individual consciousness - this is the consciousness of an individual, reflecting his individual existence and, through it, to one degree or another, social existence. Social consciousness is the totality of individual consciousnesses. Along with the peculiarities of the consciousness of individual individuals, it carries within itself a general content inherent in the entire mass of individual consciousness. As the collective consciousness of individuals, developed by them in the process of their joint activity and communication, social consciousness can be decisive only in relation to the consciousness of a given individual. This does not exclude the possibility of individual consciousness going beyond the limits of existing social consciousness. 1. Each individual consciousness is formed under the influence of individual existence, lifestyle and social consciousness. In this case, the most important role is played by the individual way of life of a person, through which the content of social life is refracted. Another factor in the formation of individual consciousness is the process of assimilation by the individual of social consciousness. This process is called internalization in psychology and sociology. In the mechanism of the formation of individual consciousness, it is therefore necessary to distinguish between two unequal aspects: the subject’s independent awareness of existence and his assimilation of the existing system of views. The main thing in this process is not the internalization of society's views; and the individual’s awareness of his own and society’s material life. Recognition of interiorization as the main mechanism for the formation of individual consciousness leads to an exaggeration of the determination of the internal by the external, to an underestimation of the internal conditionality of this determination, to ignoring the ability of the individual to create himself, his being. Individual consciousness - consciousness of the human individual (primary). It is defined in philosophy as subjective consciousness, since it is limited in time and space. Individual consciousness is determined by individual existence and arises under the influence of the consciousness of all humanity. 2 main levels of individual consciousness: 1. Initial (primary) – “passive”, “mirror”. It is formed under the influence of the external environment and external consciousness on a person. Main forms: concepts and knowledge in general. The main factors in the formation of individual consciousness: educational activity of the environment, educational activity of society, cognitive activity of the person himself. 2. Secondary – “active”, “creative”. Man transforms and organizes the world. The concept of intelligence is associated with this level. The end product of this level and consciousness in general are ideal objects that arise in human heads. Basic forms: goals, ideals, faith. The main factors: will, thinking - the core and system-forming element. Between the first and second levels there is an intermediate "semi-active" level. Main forms: the phenomenon of consciousness - memory, which is selective in nature, it is always in demand; opinions; doubts.
MASS CONSCIOUSNESS - a specific type of social consciousness that has become widespread and very important in modern societies. Like class, national, professional and other group forms of social consciousness, mass consciousness is distinguished not by its epistemological properties (content, level and quality of reflection of reality, etc.), but primarily by the specific properties of its bearer, the subject. Moreover, in contrast to the above-mentioned forms of social consciousness, the carriers of which are certain groups of society ( classes, nation, etc.), in the case of mass consciousness, a special totality acts as such a subject ( a bunch of, community) individuals, called mass. Typical (different-scale) examples of the masses: participants in broad political, sociocultural and other movements of our time; audiences of various media and media channels; consumers of certain socially “colored” (eg, prestigious, fashionable) goods and services; members of various amateur (interest) associations and clubs; “fans” of football and other sports teams, etc.
Among the most significant features of any mass are: 1) the statistical nature of a given community, which is expressed in the fact that it coincides with a multitude of discrete “units”, without representing any independent, holistic formation, different from its constituent elements; 2) the stochastic (probabilistic) nature of a given community, which consists in the fact that the “entry” of individuals into it is disordered, random, carried out according to the formula “may or may not be”, as a result of which such a community is always distinguished by “blurred ”, open borders, uncertain quantitative and qualitative composition; 3) the situational nature of the existence of a given community, expressed in the fact that it is formed and functions exclusively on the basis and within the boundaries of one or another specific activity, is impossible outside of it, as a result of which it always turns out to be an unstable formation, changing from case to case, from one specific situation to another; 4) clearly expressed heterogeneity (heterogeneity, “mixedness”) of the composition of a given community, its frankly out-group (or intergroup) nature, manifested in the fact that in the mass the boundaries between all social, demographic, political, regional and other existing in society are “destroyed” in groups.
The listed properties of the mass completely determine its inherent type of consciousness, the features of its content and structure, methods of formation and functioning. In terms of content, mass consciousness is a broad set of ideas, judgments, perceptions, illusions, feelings, moods, in one form or another reflecting all aspects of social life without exception. At the same time, in terms of its content, mass consciousness is significantly narrower than social consciousness as a whole, since beyond its boundaries there remains a great many “plots” that are not accessible to the understanding of the masses and/or do not affect their interests (cf., for example, the content of science, law, etc. .d.).
In its structure, mass consciousness is an extremely complex, conglomerate formation that arises at the “intersection” of all known types of social consciousness - sensual and rational, everyday and theoretical, abstract and artistic, contemplative and associated with volitional actions, etc. Throwing (in this connection) into the eyes of the properties of the structure of mass consciousness - its fragmentation, porosity, inconsistency, ability to rapid, unexpected changes.
Like the masses themselves, mass consciousness in modern societies arises and is formed primarily in the process of massification of the basic conditions and forms of human life (in the spheres of production, consumption, communication, socio-political participation, leisure), giving rise to the same or similar aspirations and interests , needs, skills, inclinations, etc. The action of these conditions and forms of existence is consolidated and reaches its completion in the production and dissemination of relevant types of mass culture, primarily related to the functioning of the media and propaganda. With their help, the indicated interests, needs, and aspirations of broad sections of the population are formalized in the form of a series of standard images of reality, ways of understanding it, and patterns of behavior.
Being a spiritual product of the Objective processes of massization of human practices, mass consciousness itself has an active impact on many aspects of the life of society, acting as a powerful regulator of mass forms of human behavior. At the same time, the main forms of expression and functioning of mass consciousness are public opinion and public mood.
In Western philosophy and sociology, mass consciousness has been illuminated from various positions - openly anti-democratic, identifying the masses with the “crowd”, “rabble” (J. Burkhard, G. Le Bon, X. Ortega y Gasset); social-critical, considering the mass as a negative product of modern inhumane types of societies (E. Fromm, D. Riesman, R. C. Mills, G. Marcuse); positivist, linking the emergence of the masses with scientific and technological progress, the activities of modern media (G. Bloomer, E. Shils, D. Martindale). In Russian science, for decades, positive research into mass consciousness was essentially prohibited due to the complete incompatibility of this issue with the ideological attitudes prevailing in society. At the same time, the first works on this subject appeared in the USSR already in the 60s.
Individual consciousness is the consciousness of a separate individual, reflecting his individual existence and, through it, to one degree or another, social existence. Social consciousness is the totality of individual consciousnesses. Along with the peculiarities of the consciousness of individual individuals, it carries within itself a general content inherent in the entire mass of individual consciousness. As the collective consciousness of individuals, developed by them in the process of their joint activity and communication, social consciousness can be decisive only in relation to the consciousness of a given individual. This does not exclude the possibility of individual consciousness going beyond the limits of existing social consciousness.
1. Each individual consciousness is formed under the influence of individual existence, lifestyle and social consciousness. In this case, the most important role is played by the individual way of life of a person, through which the content of social life is refracted. Another factor in the formation of individual consciousness is the process of assimilation by the individual of social consciousness. This process is called internalization in psychology and sociology. In the mechanism of the formation of individual consciousness, it is therefore necessary to distinguish between two unequal sides: the subject’s independent awareness of existence and his assimilation of the existing system of views. The main thing in this process is not the internalization of society's views; and the individual’s awareness of his own and society’s material life. Recognition of interiorization as the main mechanism for the formation of individual consciousness leads to an exaggeration of the determination of the internal by the external, to an underestimation of the internal conditionality of this determination, to ignoring the ability of the individual to create himself, his being. Individual consciousness - consciousness of the human individual (primary). It is defined in philosophy as subjective consciousness, since it is limited in time and space.
Individual consciousness is determined by individual existence and arises under the influence of the consciousness of all humanity. 2 main levels of individual consciousness:
1. Initial (primary) - “passive”, “mirror”. It is formed under the influence of the external environment and external consciousness on a person. Main forms: concepts and knowledge in general. The main factors in the formation of individual consciousness: educational activity of the environment, educational activity of society, cognitive activity of the person himself.
2. Secondary - “active”, “creative”. Man transforms and organizes the world. The concept of intelligence is associated with this level. The end product of this level and consciousness in general are ideal objects that arise in human heads. Basic forms: goals, ideals, faith. The main factors: will, thinking - the core and system-forming element.
Between the first and second levels there is an intermediate "semi-active" level. Main forms: the phenomenon of consciousness - memory, which is selective in nature, it is always in demand; opinions; doubts.
73. The essence of science, the historical conditions of its origin and development. Methodological problems of modern science.
Science is a system of research activities of society aimed at producing new knowledge about nature, society and man. Science as a specific type of spiritual production, as a social The institute appears in modern times (XV - XVII centuries).
The development of capitalism influences the emergence of science through the dominant ideology - Protestantism. Protestantism rebuilds everyday consciousness in the spirit of rationalism and practicality. Success in business is declared a godly deed.
Sciences - natural and social. A number of sciences study the process of cognition itself - logic, philosophy, etc.
Main features of scientific knowledge:
1. discovery of objective laws of reality. The goal of scientific knowledge is objective truth.
2. science is focused on implementation in practice
3. the result of scientific knowledge is an integral developing system of concepts, theories, etc.
4. special language of science - categorical apparatus
5. Science works with ideal objects
6. doing science requires special preparation of the subject of knowledge
7. science forms knowledge about the methods of scientific knowledge, i.e. methodology
The difference between science and everyday knowledge:
1. form of organization of scientific knowledge - rational-logical, which allows you to present knowledge in a rule, formula, etc.
2. science focuses on knowledge of the essence
The difference between science and art is art. the image contains the imprint of personality, a subjective moment, and science fences itself off from subjectivism.
Stages of science development:
(science is preceded by protoscience, the preclassical stage. The elements of science are born.
I. classical science (XVII - XIX centuries). the dominance of the objective style of thinking, the desire to understand the subject in itself, regardless of the conditions of its study II. neoclassical science (1st half of the 20th century). Rejection of the objectivism of classical science, comprehension of the connection between the knowledge of the object and the nature of the means and operations of the activity
III. post neoclassical science (2nd half of the 20th century). taking into account the correlation of knowledge about an object with the value-goal structures of the subject’s activity. A characteristic feature is universal evolutionism, which combines the ideas of evolution with the ideas of a systems approach and extends development to all spheres of existence.
Method is a path of research, a set of rules, techniques and ways of knowing. Methodology is the study of methods.
Currently time, methodological questions are raised and resolved in line with the following trends:
Philosophy of science
Materialist dialectics
Phenomenology
Structuralism
Post positivism
Hermeneutics - theories of text interpretation
Any method is developed on the basis of a certain theory.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge:
I. distinguish universal, general and particular methods of scientific knowledge
II. taking into account the levels of knowledge, methods of empirical and theoretical research are distinguished
III. Depending on the structure of cognitive activity, general logical methods of cognition are distinguished.
Empirical research methods:
Observation
Experiment
Comparison
Measurement
Observation is the purposeful perception of the phenomena of reality. The researcher does not interfere with the course of the study. Observation - direct and with the help of instruments. Measurement - gives the quantitative side of a phenomenon.
An experiment is characterized by the intervention of a researcher in the course of an event. Experiment - mental and with the help of instruments.
Comparison - establishes the similarities and differences between objects.
Methods of theoretical research:
1. method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. The task of theoretical analysis is to give a holistic image of the subject, to discover the laws of its development. There are 2 stages of theoretical analysis:
1).formation of abstractions in which individual properties of the whole are recorded. Movement from the concrete in sensibility to the abstract; 2).movement from abstract to concrete in thinking, identifying the essence of a phenomenon
2. historical (description of the history of real objects) and logical (general direction of development) methods. They exist in unity
3. Formalization method - ordering some fragment of knowledge using mathematical tools. Logicians
4. modeling - study of objects based on a model. Models - physical and iconic
General logical methods of cognition:
Analysis - mental or real dissection of a whole into parts
Synthesis - reuniting a whole from parts
Induction - reasoning from the particular to the general, knowledge is probabilistic in nature
Deduction - reasoning from the general to the specific
Analogy - establishing similarities in some aspects of an object based on existing similarities in other aspects
Abstraction is the process of abstracting from a number of properties of the phenomenon under study and identifying properties of interest
Generalization - establishing common features of a number of objects
74. Dialectics of biological and social in man.
When considering the problem of anthroposociogenesis (the origin and development of man), one cannot avoid the problem of the relationship between the biological and social principles in man.
It is an undeniable fact that man is dual—he is both an animal and a non-animal. This being is natural and social. Being an animal, a person has the same sense organs, systems (circulatory, muscular, etc.)
As a social being, man develops such types of activities as labor, consciousness, speech.
How do these two principles correlate in a person?
1st extreme: reducing a person to an animal, carnal principle. S. Freud: in all spheres of life, a person is driven mainly by animal instincts, but a person is not free, restriction, restraint and sexual energy is directed to other forms of life activity.
2nd extreme: the importance of the public, social in a person is emphasized and the biological foundations of human existence are underestimated and ignored, biological characteristics are explained by social reasons: acceleration, handicapped children, the influence of radiation on genes.
The question of two types of heredity in the development of society:
Biological heredity is the possibility of reproduction and development of biological properties of people.
Social heredity is the transfer of social experience of previous generations and their culture.
As a biosocial being, a person experiences the interaction of genetic and social programs.
The carrier of genetic properties is the DNA molecule; the carrier of the social program is the experience of humanity, transmitted through training and education. Natural selection no longer plays a decisive role in human life. And the social conditions of existence began to increasingly determine the development of people and the development of society.
75. The problem of life and death in the spiritual experience of humanity.
Aspects of the problem of death:
1. How to determine that a given person has already died?
2. Maybe it makes sense to determine that it’s time for this person to die?
3. The incomparability of human consciousness, the proud human spirit with the fact of its physical death.
The situation is a global civilizational crisis that can lead to the death of all humanity: the price of human life has increased, but the value has fallen. Nowadays, awareness of one's mortality causes severe emotional distress in people.
Value scale:
1. biological scale – the phenomenon of self-generation of life, its self-development.
The right to life for any living being by virtue of his birth.
2. Focuses on the specifics of human life. Human life is fundamentally different from the life of everything else. Life and death are not connected with the human mind, with the assessments of its contemporaries and descendants.
3.The idea of gaining immortality. Concerns all mature people. Different categories of people define immortality in different ways:
Immortality in the genes of offspring - perpetuate yourself in your children.
Mummification of the body with the expectation of its eternal preservation is characteristic of totalitarian societies
The hope for the dissolution of body and spirit in cosmic immortality is characteristic of Eastern religious and philosophical movements
The results of human creativity - works, ideological concepts
Achieving various states, death is a possible breakthrough into other worlds.
Medieval philosophy: human life is torment, real life comes after death.
Ancient world: life is a feast - bloody or merry.
The era of rationalism: man is a mechanism, his task is not to die prematurely, he needs to be repaired in time.
The Age of Enlightenment: Be guided by spiritual values in your life.
Existential philosophy: the threshold of death makes a person seriously feel the value of his life.
Christianity: the desire for eternal life, which will come after bodily life.
Islam: based on the fact that everything is subordinate to the will of Allah, an easier attitude towards death, a person can more easily become involved in the death of a person. The religion that is constantly growing.
Common to Christianity and Islam: man lives in order to die and be resurrected.
Buddhism: a person lives in order to, having died, break the chain of rebirth, not to be reborn in this form.
Marxist philosophy: death is the natural end of all living things, an exchange between organic and inorganic nature.
Life itself is meaning, suffering is also life.
The meaning of life has a biological origin:
1. Living for yourself, fueled by the instinct of self-preservation.
2. Life for the family - fueled by sexual instinct
3. Life for the species, for the collective.
Problem: the right to life and the right to death
Everything born of a human woman has the right to life, everything living must live.
The problem of euthanasia: what to do with those people who are doomed to die. A person should have the right to a dignified death—the position of paternalists.
The position of anti-paternalists is for euthanasia. “Pater” is a family.
Paternalists: euthanasia is unacceptable, a person who decides to die brings suffering to his loved ones, problems arise: whoever does this is a “bad example”, suddenly a cure will be invented and the person can be saved..
76. The doctrine of man (philosophical anthropology). The nature of man and the meaning of his existence.
Ch-k is an individual. Individual (from Latin individuum - indivisible), original. - lat. Greek translation the concept of “atom” (first in Cicero), later. - designation of the individual in contrast to the aggregate, mass; dept. living creature, individual, department. person - in contrast to the collective, social. groups, society as a whole. Individuality - the unique originality of someone. phenomena, dep. creatures, huh. In the most general sense, I. as something special, characterizing a given individuality in its qualities. differences, is contrasted with typical as general, inherent in all elements of a given class or a significant part of them. Personality- hostel and scientific term, designation: 1) person. the individual as a subject of relations and consciousness. activity (person, in the broad sense of the word) or 2) sustainable. a system of socially significant traits that characterize an individual as a member of a particular island or community. Ch-ka f. understands as integrity. The essence of h-ka is connected with society. conditions of its functioning and development, with activity, during the cat. it turns out to be both a prerequisite and a product of history. Ch-k- the totality of all societies. relationships. 1) Idealistic. and religious-mystical. understanding part 2) Naturalistic. (biological) understanding of part 3) Essential understanding of part 4) Holistic understanding of part - developed individuality - diversity of social. qualities Individuality not only has different abilities, but also represents their integrity. If the concept of individuality brings the activity of a person under the measure of originality and uniqueness, versatility and harmony, naturalness and ease, then the concept of personality is supported. there is a conscious-volitional beginning in it. Ch-k as individuality expression. himself in productive actions, and his actions interest us only to the extent that they receive an organic objective embodiment. The opposite can be said about personality: it is actions that are interesting in it. Human vitality rests on the will to live and presupposes constant personal effort. The simplest, most basic form of this effort is the subjugation of societies. moral prohibitions, mature and developed - work according to definition. the meaning of life. Socrates believed that what a person most of all needs is knowledge of himself and his affairs, determination of the program and purpose of his activity, a clear awareness of what is good and evil, beautiful and ugly, truth and error. For S. the meaning of people. life lies in philosophizing, in fasting. self-knowledge, the eternal search for oneself through testing. He believed that a person's actions are determined by the degree of his awareness. Thomas Aqu. believed that in ch-ka there is no other substantial form, except for one mental one. soul, and that it virtually contains within itself the sentient and nourishing soul, and contains within itself all the unchangeable forms, and alone produces everything that more imperfect forms produce in other species. Machiaveli believed that h-ka’s desires are insatiable, etc. nature has endowed a person with the ability to do everything and strives for everything, and fortune allows him to achieve only a little, then the consequence is constant spiritual dissatisfaction and satiety of people with what they own. This is what makes them blaspheme the present, praise the past and greedily strive for the future even when they have no reasonable basis for this.
77. The problem of personality in philosophy. Basic personality types.
Currently, there are 2 concepts of personality: personality as a functional (role) characteristic of a person and personality as his essential characteristic.
The first concept is based on the concept of a person’s social role. This concept, however, does not allow one to reveal the inner world of a person, recording only his external behavior; a cat does not always reflect the essence of a person.
The essential concept is deeper. Personality is an individual expression of the general relationships and functions of people, the subject of knowledge and transformation of the world, rights and obligations, ethical, aesthetic and all other social norms. The personal quality of a person in this case is a derivative of his social lifestyle and self-conscious mind. Personality therefore is always a socially developed person.
Personality is formed in the process of activity and communication. In other words, its formation is essentially a process of socialization of the individual. This percentage requires productive activity from people, express. in constant adjustment of one’s actions, behaviors, and actions. This necessitates the development of the ability of self-esteem, which is associated with the development of self-awareness. Self-awareness and self-esteem together form the main core of the personality, around which the unique specificity of the personality develops.
Personality is a scoop of its three main components: biogenetic inclinations, the influence of social factors and its psychosocial core - “I”. This I determines the character of a person’s psyche, the sphere of motivation, the way of correlating one’s interests with social ones, the level of aspirations, the basis for the formation of beliefs, value orientations, and worldview. It is also the basis for the formation of a person’s social feelings: his own dignity, duty, responsibility, conscience, justice... Subjectively, for the individual, the personality acts as an image of his Self - it serves as the basis for internal self-esteem and represents how the individual sees himself in the present, the future, what he would like to be. Man as an individual is a process that requires tireless mental work.
The main resulting property of a person is worldview. A person asks himself: who am I? why am I? what is the meaning of my life? Only by developing this or that worldview does a person, through self-determination in life, gain the opportunity to consciously and purposefully act, realizing his essence.
Simultaneously with the formation of the personality, the character of the individual is also formed - the psychologist is the core of a person. “Only in character does the individual acquire his permanent certainty” - Hegel.
The word character usually means a measure of personal strength, i.e. willpower. People with a strong will have a strong character. It is recognized that great character is possessed by those who achieve great goals through their actions, meeting the requirements of objective, reasonably substantiated and socially significant ideals. If a person’s character is exchanged for empty and petty goals, then it turns into stubbornness.
Without will, neither morality nor citizenship is possible, and social self-affirmation of the human individual as a person is generally impossible.
A special component of personality is its morality. Social circumstances often lead to the fact that a person, faced with a choice, does not always follow himself, the ethical imperative of his personality. And only individuals with high morals experience a deep sense of tragedy from the consciousness of their “non-personality,” that is, their inability to do what the innermost meaning of the “I” dictates.
Thus, personality is a measure of a person’s integrity; without internal integrity there is no personality.
It is important to see in a person not only the unified and common, but also the unique and original. The uniqueness of each person is already manifested at the biological level. Each person is biologically unique. However, the true meaning of uniqueness is connected not only with the appearance of a person, but with his inner spirit world. What is personal uniqueness? Each individual has something unique that is connected, firstly, with hereditary characteristics, and secondly, with the conditions of the environment in which she is raised. Human characteristics, environmental conditions and the activities of the individual create a unique personal experience - all this together forms the social and psychological uniqueness of the individual. But individuality is not simply the sum of these aspects, it is their organic unity, indecomposable into components. “Individuality is indivisibility, unity, integrity, infinity; from head to toe, from the first to the last atom, through and through, everywhere I am an individual being.” Each individual person always has something of his own, at least a unique stupidity that does not allow him to assess the situation and himself in it.
Individuality is not an absolute. It changes and at the same time remains unchanged throughout a person’s life.
Necessity and freedom.
“Fate guides those who accept it and drags those who resist it.” The question of the relationship between freedom and necessity is eternal.
People have significant freedom to determine the goals of their activities and the means to achieve this goal. Freedom, therefore, is not absolute and is put into practice as the realization of possibilities by choosing a specific goal and plan of action.
See question 36 on freedom and necessity.
78. Society as a self-developing system. Social structure of society.
Human society is the highest stage of development of living systems, the main
the elements of which are people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor,
products of labor, various forms of property and the centuries-old struggle for it,
politics and the state, a set of various institutions, a sophisticated sphere
The vital basis of the flow of social life is labor.
The unification of people into an integral system occurs regardless of their will:
the natural fact of birth inevitably includes a person in the social
see QUESTION No. 48 about the specifics of social relations.
In their actions, people proceed from their needs and motives; it means that
they act consciously. In the course of social life, they arise and fight
progressive and reactionary, advanced and outdated, correct and false ideas.
Countless numbers of individual, class, national
and interstate interests. A cauldron of conflicting feelings is seething - love and
hatred, good and evil.
Social the structure of society is a set of interacting and interconnected social. institutions, groups and layers. The main element of social cultures are classes.
Classes– large groups of different people
According to their place in a historically determined system of social production,
In their relation to the means of production,
According to their role in the social organization of labor,
According to the size of the share of social wealth that they have,
Classes are groups of people, one of which can appropriate the labor of another due to their differences in the system of social order.
These are the main class-forming characteristics.
The auxiliary ones include: level of education, nature and content of work, lifestyle...
In Western sociology, with the main class-forming feature, i.e. attitude towards the means of production, the theory of social stratification does not agree. On this basis, she proposes her criteria:
1. The theory of social stratification offers social as a leading criterion. prestige.
2. People’s self-esteem and their social positions are considered the most important.
3. When considering society, some objective criteria are taken into account: profession, income, education.
The theory of social stratification removes restrictions and a one-sided approach when considering social issues. structures of society. The personal approach is also used when considering social. structures of society. This approach includes social alienation and other characteristics. The personal approach is based on the theory of modernization, where each stage of modernization has its own type of alienation. On this basis, 4 models of society are distinguished.
1. Traditional society with class-hierarchical social. structure and with non-economic personal alienation.
2. Modernized classical society with a class-hierarchical social system. structure and economic (material) form of alienation.
3. Society with type 2 modernization, i.e. with modernization in line with the corporate-hierarchical structure and with a total form of alienation.
4. Post-modernization society with developed social. differentiation and removal of social tension and social alienation.
The social class structure of society shows that any type of society is heterogeneous. Classes, social layers, groups, individual members of society act as subjects of various types of activities, therefore, in society there are movements from some social networks. groups and spheres to others
From some social groups and spheres to others. On this basis, the theory of socialism was formulated in Western sociology. mobility.
Social mobility – These are transitions of people from the same social networks. groups and strata to others (so-called social movements) either ascending to higher positions with higher prestige, income and power, or moving to lower hierarchical positions.
The term social mobility was introduced into sociology by the American sociologist of Russian origin Pitirim Sorokin.
There are intergenerational and intragenerational social. mobility
Intergenerational- mobility between generations, social change. positions from father to son.
Intragenerational social mobility - mobility within a generation, an individual career related to social services. ascending or descending.
Based on the direction of movement, vertical and horizontal social networks are distinguished. mobility, which also allows, when analyzing the social structure of society, a differentiated approach to one or another group of society. The seven-class vertical classification is used in the analysis of social networks. mobility:
1. This is the highest class of professional administrators.
2. Mid-level technical specialists
3. Commercial class
4. Petty bourgeoisie
4. Technicians and workers performing supervisory functions
5. Skilled workers
6. Unskilled workers.
When analyzing social mobility, the method of comparative analysis of the prestige of the profession of the American sociologist Treiman is also used.
Social problems conflicts.
Classes, social layers and groups often come into conflict with each other, leading to conflicts. The causes of conflicts are varied: the presence of opposing interests, lack of life's goods, differences in goals...
Social theory conflicts are developed by many Western sociologists and especially by the German sociologist philosopher Dahrendorf in his work “Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society.”
In his opinion, conflict is a social norm. life, which is inevitable in any social. system. Dahrendorf distinguishes subjects and objects of conflicts, which are of a different nature. This is a lack of information, means of influence, various obstacles to achieving the goal, all kinds of social situations. choice...
Conflict is associated with the presence of opposing interests that arise in industrial relations with opposite norms and expectations, with social positions. institutes and groups.
The most difficult, in his opinion, are mass conflicts at the level of society, countries, and states. Subjects of mass conflicts (classes, nations, religious communities), as a rule, enter into difficult-to-regulate economic, political and other conflicts.
There is a special science that develops specific proposals and research to overcome crises and conflicts - empirical sociology.
79. The concept of culture in philosophy. Culture and civilization.
The totality of mater. and spirit. values, as well as ways of their creation, the ability to use them for the progress of mankind, transmit them from generation to generation and constitute culture. Culture is everything created by man; a set of values created and created by man; qualitative characteristics of the level of development of the island. Value is a fact of culture, and it is social in its essence. A huge layer of these cultural values and, in general, an essential form of their expression is a system of symbols. The core of cultural values is the concept of morality. Where there is a person, his activity, relationships between people, there is also culture. Culture: material and spiritual (do not contrast!). Civilization = cultivated nature + means of cultivation + a person who has mastered this culture and is able to live and act in the cultivated environment of his habitat + societies. relationships (forms of social organization of culture) that ensure the existence of culture and its continuation. C. - sociocultural education. Not C., but K. is the only criterion for the social development of society. Culture is included in the movement of history in a variety of ways. She is expressive. the personal side of the h-ka’s activity in society, fulfilled. F translation of experience, knowledge, results of people. activities New ideas are then included in history. process, introducing new elements into it. Any human invention can turn into a historical factor. development and begin to influence it. An example is the invention of nuclear power. weapons, which from the moment of their invention began to influence the course of scientific and technological progress. To eliminate this terrible threat, various committees were created in many countries of the world. So the creation of scientific and technical. thoughts entered social life, influencing the social and economic processes taking place in society. and political processes. But not everything that was born of human thought entered society. life, into culture, has become a historical moment. process. Many inventions were not implemented for various reasons, e.g. invented Polzunov in the 18th century steam engine (Russia was not ready for this); work in the region genetics of Soviet scientists. During the societies. historical process from those “proposals”, cat. come from the side of culture, this island carries out a “social selection” of these proposals and what it will be like from the current one. state of development of the island.
The totality of material and spiritual values, as well as methods of their creation,
the ability to use them for the progress of mankind, to pass them on from generation to
generation and constitutes culture.
Culture is everything created by man; the totality of created and being created
a man of values; qualitative characteristics of the level of development of society.
Value is a fact of culture, and it is social in its essence.
A huge layer of these cultural values and, in general, their essential form
expressions are made up of a system of symbols. The core of cultural values - concept
morality. Where there is a person, his activities, relationships between
people, there is also culture there. Culture: material and spiritual (not
oppose!).
Civilization = cultivated nature + means of cultivation + man,
who has mastered this culture and is able to live and act in a cultivated environment
its habitat + social relations (forms of social organization of culture)
ensuring the existence of the center and its continuation.
C.-sociocultural education.
Not C., but K. is the only criterion for the social development of society.
80. Philosophy of history.
Fi. originates in Hegel's lectures on phi - the concept of rationality of the world-historical process. Interest in the era of French enlightenment.
Introduced the term Voltaire. This is a set of philological arguments about world history without special philological theories. justification for their necessity. and legal.
Currently relates.to.the.independent.region.of.phil.knowledge, engaged in reflection of the qualities.of.its own.development. society in its difference from nature.
Important problems are the direction and meaning of history, methodological approaches to the typology of the general history periodization, and criteria for the progress of the historical process.
fi strives to find general laws involving society in the global historical process.
The task is to study the problem of the meaning and direction of history.
Necessity is such an unambiguous connection of phenomena in which the onset
a cause necessarily entails an effect.
Accident is a relationship of cause and effect in which the causal factors
the grounds allow the realization of any of the many possible consequences.
Randomness also has reasons.
Dialectics of necessity and chance:
1) chance - a form of manifestation and addition of necessity
2) chance can turn into necessity
Necessity is associated with dynamic laws, chance - with
statistical.
Probability is a measure of the possibility of a random event occurring.
Reality is what has already arisen and come true. This is the totality
realized opportunities.
Possibility is what is contained in a given reality as a prerequisite
its changes and developments, unrealized reality.
Possibility and reality - 2 stages of the natural development of phenomena
nature and society. Possibilities - real and abstract:
Real - this is when the conditions for transforming possibility into
reality has already matured or is in the process of becoming.
Abstract - those that, under given conditions, cannot turn into
reality
Opportunities - progressive and regressive.
Conditions for turning possibility into reality:
1. in the development of nature this happens spontaneously
2. in public life:
Objective - conditions of material life, processes
independent of people
Subjective - conscious activity of people
Methodological significance of the categories of dialectics.
reality. Laws and categories are historical in nature and are
the result of knowledge. The development of a category is the prerogative of philosophy.
82. Truth and error. Knowledge and faith.
Both in the past and in modern conditions, three great values remain the high standard of a person’s actions and life itself - his service to truth, goodness and beauty.
The first personifies the value of knowledge, the second - the moral principles of life and the third - service to the values of art. Moreover, truth, if you like, is the focus in which goodness and beauty are combined.
Truth is the goal towards which knowledge is directed, for, as F. Bacon rightly wrote, knowledge is power, but only under the indispensable condition that it is true.
Truth is knowledge. But is all knowledge truth? Knowledge about the world and even about its individual fragments, for a number of reasons, may include misconceptions, and sometimes even a conscious distortion of the truth, although the core of knowledge is, as noted above, an adequate reflection of reality in the human mind in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments , theories.
But what is truth, true knowledge? Throughout the development of philosophy, a number of options for answering this most important question in the theory of knowledge have been proposed. Aristotle also proposed his solution, which is based on the principle of correspondence: truth is the correspondence of knowledge to an object, reality.
R. Descartes proposed his solution: the most important sign of true knowledge is clarity. For Plato and Hegel, truth appears as the agreement of reason with itself, since knowledge is, from their point of view, the revelation of the spiritual, rational fundamental principle of the world.
D. Berkeley, and later Mach and Avenarius, considered truth as the result of the coincidence of the perceptions of the majority.
The conventional concept of truth considers true knowledge (or its logical basis) to be the result of a convention, an agreement.
Finally, some epistemologists consider knowledge that fits into a particular system of knowledge as true. In other words, this concept is based on the principle of coherence, i.e. reducibility of provisions either to certain logical principles or to experimental data.
Finally, the position of pragmatism boils down to the fact that truth lies in the usefulness of knowledge, its effectiveness.
The range of opinions is quite large, but the classical concept of truth, which originates from Aristotle and comes down to correspondence, the correspondence of knowledge to an object, has enjoyed and continues to enjoy the greatest authority and widest distribution.
The classical concept of truth is in good agreement with the initial epistemological thesis of dialectical-materialist philosophy that knowledge is a reflection of reality in human consciousness. Truth from these positions is an adequate reflection of an object by a cognizing subject, its reproduction as it exists on its own, outside and independently of man and his consciousness.
There are a number of forms of truth: ordinary or everyday, scientific truth, artistic truth and moral truth. In general, there are almost as many forms of truth as there are types of activities. A special place among them is occupied by scientific truth, characterized by a number of specific features. First of all, this is a focus on revealing the essence as opposed to ordinary truth. Moreover, scientific truth
distinguishes systematicity, orderliness of knowledge within its framework and validity, evidence of knowledge. Finally, scientific truth is distinguished by repeatability, universal validity, and intersubjectivity.
Now let us turn to the main characteristics of true knowledge. The key characteristic of truth, its main feature is its objectivity. Objective truth is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity.
In other words, objective truth is such knowledge, the content of which is as it is “given” by the object, i.e. reflects him as he is. Thus, the statements that the earth is spherical, that +3 > +2, are objective truths.
If our knowledge is a subjective image of the objective world, then the objective in this image is the objective truth.
Recognition of the objectivity of truth and the knowability of the world are equivalent. But, as V.I. noted. Lenin, following the solution to the question of objective truth, the second question follows: “...Can human ideas that express objective truth express it immediately, in its entirety, unconditionally, absolutely, or only approximately, relatively? This second question is a question about the relationship absolute and relative truth." (Lenin V.I. Materialism and empirio-criticism // Complete collected works).
The question of the relationship between absolute and relative truth expresses the dialectic of knowledge in its movement towards truth, which was already discussed above, in the movement from ignorance to knowledge, from less complete knowledge to more complete knowledge. Comprehension of truth - and this is explained by the endless complexity of the world, its inexhaustibility in both big and small - cannot be achieved in one act of cognition, it is a process.
This process goes through relative truths, relatively true reflections of an object independent of man, to absolute truth, an accurate and complete, exhaustive reflection of the same object.
We can say that relative truth is a step on the way to absolute truth. Relative truth contains grains of absolute truth, and each step of knowledge forward adds new grains of absolute truth to knowledge about an object, bringing us closer to complete mastery of it.
So, there is only one truth - it is objective, since it contains knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity, but at the same time it is relative, because does not provide comprehensive knowledge about the object. Moreover, being objective truth, it also contains particles, grains of absolute truth, and is a step on the path to it.
And at the same time, truth is specific, since it retains its meaning only for certain conditions of time and place, and with their change it can turn into its opposite. Is rain beneficial? There cannot be a definite answer; it depends on the conditions. Truth is concrete. The truth that water boils at 100 degrees Celsius retains its meaning only under strictly defined conditions. The position on the concreteness of truth, on the one hand, is directed against dogmatism, which ignores the changes occurring in life, and on the other hand, against relativism, which denies objective truth, which leads to agnosticism.
But the path to truth is by no means strewn with roses; knowledge constantly develops in contradictions and through contradictions between truth and error.
_Misconception. - this is the content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted as true. Take, for example, the idea of the spontaneous generation of life, which was buried only as a result of Pasteur’s work. Or the position of the indivisibility of the atom, the hopes of alchemists for the discovery of the philosopher's stone, with the help of which everything can easily turn into gold. Misconception is the result of one-sidedness in reflecting the world, limited knowledge at a certain time, as well as the complexity of the problems being solved.
_Lie. - deliberate distortion of the actual state of affairs in order to deceive someone.
Lies often take the form of disinformation - substituting unreliable for selfish purposes, and replacing the true with false. An example of such use of disinformation is Lysenko’s destruction of genetics in our country on the basis of slander and exorbitant praise of his own “successes,” which was very costly for domestic science.
Encyclopedias:
True, the agreement of our thoughts with reality, and also in a formal sense - the agreement of our thoughts with general logical laws. The question of the criterion of information, that is, the basis of reliability, is dealt with in the theory of knowledge (epistemology).
True, a true reflection of objective reality in a person’s consciousness, its reproduction as it exists on its own, outside and independently of a person and his consciousness. The understanding of information as the correspondence of knowledge to things goes back to the thinkers of antiquity. Thus, Aristotle wrote: “...he who considers what is divided (in reality) is right. Red.) - divided and united - united..." (Metaphysics, IX, 10, 1051 b. 9; Russian translation, M.-L., 1934). This tradition, in the understanding of I., is continued in the philosophy of modern times (F. Bacon , B. Spinoza, C. Helvetius, D. Diderot, P. Holbach, M. V. Lomonosov, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, L. Feuerbach, etc.).
In idealistic systems, idealism is understood either as an eternally unchanging and absolute property of ideal objects (Plato, Augustine), or as the agreement of thinking with itself, with its a priori forms (I. Kant). German classical idealism, starting with J. Fichte, introduced a dialectical approach to the interpretation of idealism. According to G. Hegel, intelligence is a process of development of knowledge.
83. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.
Methods of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.
Concept method (from the Greek word “methodos” - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality.
The method equips a person with a system of principles, requirements, rules, guided by which he can achieve the intended goal. Mastery of a method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.
“Thus, the method (in one form or another) comes down to a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of cognition and action. It is a system of prescriptions, principles, requirements that guide the subject in solving a specific problem, achieving a certain result in a given field of activity. It disciplines the search for truth, allows (if correct) to save energy and time, and move towards the goal in the shortest way. The main function of the method is the regulation of cognitive and other forms of activity" "Philosophy" under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov-n/D 2000 p.488.
The doctrine of method began to develop in the science of modern times. Its representatives considered the correct method to be a guide in the movement towards reliable, true knowledge. Thus, a prominent philosopher of the 17th century. F. Bacon compared the method of cognition to a lantern illuminating the way for a traveler walking in the dark. And another famous scientist and philosopher of the same period, R. Descartes, outlined his understanding of the method as follows: “By method,” he wrote, “I mean precise and simple rules, strict adherence to which... without unnecessary waste mental powers, but gradually and continuously increasing knowledge, contributes to the fact that the mind achieves true knowledge of everything that is available to it.” Descartes R. Selected Works. M., 1950. p.89.
There is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically devoted to the study of methods and which is usually called methodology. Methodology literally means “the study of methods” (for this term comes from two Greek words: “methodos” - method and “logos” - doctrine). By studying the patterns of human cognitive activity, the methodology develops on this basis methods for its implementation. The most important task of the methodology is to study the origin, essence, effectiveness and other characteristics of methods of cognition.
2. Social and psychological mechanisms of influence on group and mass consciousness
Nowadays, the media has a huge psychological influence on a person’s consciousness and subconscious.
Through the media, a huge amount of information is bombarded, which affects individual and mass consciousness.
With the development of information technology, the possibilities of influencing and manipulating human consciousness have sharply increased.
The media today is a powerful factor of influence on the group and mass consciousness of people. Mass communication is the process of disseminating information and influence in society through special media: print, television, radio, cinema, etc., as a result of which the message reaches large groups of people at once.
Mass communication influences the spread of standards of perception of reality, cultural norms, and standards of behavior. In recent years, much attention has been paid to advertising, mass culture, and the influence of technical means of communication on society; interest in global problems of information dissemination and new information realities is intensifying.
Mass communication has a formative and reinforcing effect on social stereotypes, i.e. schematic and simplified ideas about social objects that are widespread in society. Stereotypes may apply to other nationalities, classes, groups, etc. The perception of an out-group through stereotypes has two sides: positive (a stereotype provides relatively quick knowledge and allows one to classify the group as a broader class of phenomena) and negative (filling a stereotype with negative characteristics leads to the formation of intergroup hostility).
The ability to control mass consciousness and behavior is associated with the action of a number of elements lying in the sphere of the unconscious. The most significant of them from the point of view of mass influence are attitudes and stereotypes. An attitude is a state of internal readiness of a subject to react in a certain way to objects of reality or to information about them. There are positive and negative attitudes.
Most attitudes are acquired by a person in ready-made form from social experience and culture. Mass consciousness extremely rarely strives to develop an attitude towards social and political phenomena and processes. It prefers to receive it ready-made from the media.
Racial, ethnic and religious attitudes occupy a particularly strong position in the mass consciousness.
Thus, many Russians who have a negative attitude towards Caucasians, Jews or Wahhabis may have never participated in real conflicts with representatives of these groups, but have seen relevant stories on TV, read or heard from friends. This allows some not very clean politicians, if necessary, to update these guidelines for specific political purposes, for example, to gain mass support in elections.
In these cases, we can talk about group or mass installations. It should be emphasized that it is precisely as a result of the action of attitudes that are unconscious to the narrator himself that the sharpening or even the addition of specific details occurs in the process of transmitting hearing.
In social psychology, it is customary to distinguish several functions of attitude in the process of cognition and motivation of behavior: cognitive (regulates the process of cognition), affective (channels emotions), evaluative (predetermines assessments) and behavioral (directs behavior).
In addition to the indicated functions of the attitude, one more one should be highlighted, the most significant from the point of view of its impact on mass consciousness and behavior. This is the function of a barrier. The attitude formed in the human mind does not allow information into it that could contradict it.
American political scientists even coined the special term “Teflon president,” explaining the immunity of the mass consciousness to any negative information concerning US President R. Reagan.
The barrier function gives the installation special stability, making it useless to try to convince the person making a decision based on the installation. At best, he will not hear our arguments, at worst, he will form a negative attitude towards us as a source of information. Therefore, when setting oneself the task of managing mass consciousness and behavior, one should, first of all, use existing attitudes to achieve the goal, in some cases try to form new ones based on them, and not waste much effort on trying to break or destroy existing attitudes, especially those entrenched in mass consciousness for a long time.
Currently, numerous theories have been proposed to explain the mechanisms of influence of mass communication on group and mass consciousness. The most popular of these are the uses and gratifications theory and the dependency theory. The first emphasizes that a person acts as an active filter of information, and not its passive recipient. He selects media messages in order to satisfy some of his needs. Thus, the media audience is active and purposeful, and the person - the initiator of the choice of message - is well aware of his desires and needs. He, knowing his own needs, looks for various ways to satisfy them, one of which is the media: they seem to enter into an argument with other sources of satisfying needs. For example, the need for entertainment can be satisfied not only by sitting in front of the TV, but also by meeting friends, visiting a football match or a pub.
The process of influence of mass communication on group and mass consciousness can be described as follows. Social institutions and the media, interacting with the audience, form various needs, interests and drives in people. Once formed, this motivational system begins, in turn, to influence where and in what area a person will look for sources of satisfying needs. Having chosen certain sources, a person may later find himself in a certain dependence on them. For example, older people, due to decreased mobility, communicate little, which increases their dependence on media such as television. Teenagers may become addicted to the video industry because these types of hobbies conform to the norms of that social group.
Exclusively psychological means of influence include verbal, paralinguistic and non-verbal.
Verbal signals are words, and first of all their meaning, but also the nature of the words used, the selection of expressions, the correctness of speech or various types of its incorrectness.
Paralinguistic signals are features of the pronunciation of speech, individual words and sounds. Paralanguage tells us how to interpret words and provides additional information for interpretation. Paralinguistic means - accompany speech, complement the emotional side of communication (whistle in surprise, sigh in despair, etc.)
Nonverbal signals - body language includes five components: A) Gestures (a method of symbolic use of hands); B) Facial expressions (the way of using facial expressions); C) Body position (way to hold ourselves (our body)); D) Proxemics (a way of using space. The distance between interlocutors depends on the age and gender of the communicants, and on the degree of acquaintance between them); D) Tactile communication (touching, patting, etc., the use of tactile elements of communication indicates mutual relations, status, degree of friendship between communicants).
Types of psychological influence:
1. Argumentation. Expressing and discussing arguments in favor of a certain decision or position with the aim of forming or changing the interlocutor’s attitude towards this decision or position. 2. Persuasion. Conscious, reasoned influence on another person or group of people, with the goal of changing judgment, attitudes, intentions or decisions. 3. Self-promotion. Declaring your goals and presenting evidence of your competence and qualifications in order to be appreciated and thereby gain advantages in a selection situation (appointment to a position). 4. Suggestion. Conscious unreasoned influence on a person or group of people, aimed at changing their state, attitude towards something and predisposition to certain actions. 5. Infection. The transfer of one’s state or attitude to another person or group of people who in some way (not yet explained) adopt this state or attitude. This state can be transmitted both involuntarily and voluntarily, and can also be acquired (involuntarily or voluntarily).
6. Awakening the impulse to imitation. The ability to create a desire to be like you. This ability can manifest itself both involuntarily and voluntarily. The desire to imitate and imitate (copying someone else's behavior and way of thinking) can also be voluntary or involuntary. 7. Building favor. Attracting the involuntary attention of the addressee to oneself by demonstrating one’s own originality and attractiveness, expressing favorable judgments about the addressee, imitating him or providing him with a service. 8. Request. An appeal to the addressee to satisfy the needs or desires of the initiator of the influence.
9. Ignoring. Deliberate inattention, absent-mindedness towards the partner, his statements and actions. Most often perceived as a sign of neglect and disrespect, but in some cases it acts as a tactful form of forgiveness for tactlessness or awkwardness committed by a partner 10. Coercion. The threat of the initiator using his control capabilities in order to achieve the required behavior from the addressee. Controlling capabilities are the powers to deprive the recipient of any benefits or to change the conditions of his life and work. The most severe forms of coercion may involve threats of physical harm. Subjectively, coercion is experienced as pressure: by the initiator - as his own pressure, by the addressee - as pressure from the initiator or “circumstances”. 11. Destructive criticism. Expressing disparaging or offensive judgments about a person’s personality and/or rude aggressive condemnation, slander or ridicule of his deeds and actions. The destructiveness of such criticism is that it does not allow a person to “save face”, diverts his energy to fight the negative emotions that arise, and takes away his faith in himself.
12. Attack. A sudden attack on another's psyche, carried out with or without conscious intent, as a form of release of emotional tension. Expressing disparaging or offensive judgments about a person’s personality; gross aggressive condemnation, slander or ridicule of his deeds and actions; a reminder of the shameful or regrettable facts of his biography; categorical imposition of one's advice, etc. 13. Manipulation. Hidden encouragement of the recipient to experience certain states, make decisions and/or perform actions necessary for the initiator to achieve his own goals.
Almost everyone who wants to influence others does this not because insight came to him, the absolute truth was revealed and he felt worthy to decide for others, but because he pursues or defends his interests. Take, for example, the scheme used in religious sects. The main element is another newly minted messiah, upon whom a “revelation” has descended, i.e., more competent in the spiritual field than the rest, who knows the “path to salvation.” There is a support group that infects victims with “their example”... There are many known cases of taking over not only the souls and bodies, but also the property of sectarians. Impact on a spiritual level is perhaps one of the most powerful types of psychological influence.
Due to the rapid pace of development of the information environment, the possibilities of hidden information and psychological influences on individual, group and mass consciousness, as well as the mental states of people, are expanding.
Negative information and psychological influences are, first of all, manipulative influences on the individual, on his ideas and emotional-volitional sphere, on group and mass consciousness, an instrument of psychological pressure with the aim of overtly or covertly inducing subjects to act to the detriment of their own interests in the interests of individual persons, groups or organizations carrying out these impacts.
The emergence of new forms and means of “hidden” influence on individual, group and mass consciousness requires the organization of special monitoring of the information environment. This type of influence may include: psychosemantic, subliminal, electromagnetic, acoustic and other types of influence.
The media are the main instrument of political manipulation, since they have rich and virtually unlimited resource capabilities to influence mass consciousness.
The purpose of manipulation is to influence a person through channels that are least consciously controlled, and thus introduce into the mass consciousness socio-political myths (Greek mythos - word, narrative, legend) - illusory ideas that affirm certain values and norms and are perceived primarily by faith, without rational, critical understanding.
Exposure to television, cinema, etc. capable of activating the mechanisms of socio-psychological imitation, infection, fashion suggestion and, consequently, shaping the thoughts, feelings, and needs of young people. The means of mass communications are capable of influencing the opinions and assessments of the audience with great psychological pressure, offering everyone the same norm, measure and stereotype of impressions. A characteristic feature of mass communication of our time is persuasive communication. There are two main ways of persuasion: direct and indirect. The direct method consists of providing a system of arguments, the indirect method uses indirect factors, hints, and inclines to approval without hesitation.
It has been experimentally revealed that the effectiveness of social influences depends on various characteristics of the audience. These include the following characteristics.
· Age. During the second decade of a person's life and at the beginning of the third, intensive personality formation occurs, and the attitudes that arose during this period tend to remain unchanged throughout subsequent life. The attitudes of young people are less stable.
· Self-esteem. People with low self-esteem are often too slow to understand a message and therefore difficult to persuade. People with high self-esteem understand everything quickly, but prefer to stick to their views. It is easiest to influence people with adequate self-esteem.
· Values. With a direct method of communication, if it is consistent with our ideas, it convinces us. If it makes us think about counterarguments, we remain with the same opinion.
· Motivation. If a person has the motivation to think about the topic of the message, then he is more willing to believe the communicator, more favorable and less inclined to find counterarguments.
Advertising is rightfully considered one of the most powerful means of influencing mass consciousness. The psychological impact of advertising is manifested in the processes of processing advertising messages: emotions, thoughts, possible solutions that determine specific human behavioral acts.
There are four components of the psychological impact of advertising:
· cognitive (obtaining new information through information processing processes: sensation, perception, attention, associative thinking, memory);
· affective (formation of an emotional attitude that stimulates desires and experiences);
· regulatory (inducement to specific actions);
· communicative (integrating the advertising consumer into the context of information).
Among the methods of psychological influence of advertising on people, due to the age-related specifics of mental development, the following have the greatest influence: psychological infection (due to the impact on the emotional sphere of the individual); imitation (the child’s appropriation of different models of behavior, views, and worldviews of adults); suggestion (high subtestivity due to unformed personality integrity).
Worldview is formed under the influence of social conditions, upbringing and education, and to this we can confidently add the influence of the media, advertising, and fashion. It affects norms of behavior, attitudes towards work, towards other people, the nature of life aspirations, tastes and interests.
List of used literature
1. Shepel V.M. Imageology: secrets of personal charm. -2nd ed.-M.: Culture and Sports, UNITY, 2003. 2. Perelygina E.B. Psychology of image: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002, P.118.
3. Burns R. Development of “Self-concept” and education. M., 1986, pp. 30-34.
4. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. – M.: Aspect Press, 1999, pp. 171-173.
5. Evgenieva T.V. Attitudes and stereotypes of mass consciousness. Website of the educational project Elitarium. www.elitarium.ru.
6. Zelinsky S.A. The theory of mass manipulation. Information and psychological impact on mass consciousness. – St. Petersburg: Publishing and Trading House “Skifia”, 2008, pp. 252-270.
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