The main directions of anti-scientism in Western philosophy XIX-XX centuries. (irrationalism, Freudianism, existentialism, postmodernism).

One of the leading trends in European philosophy of the XX century. became existentialism (from lat. existentia - existence) - the philosophy of existence. S. Kierkegaard is considered its founder. He opposed rationalism classical philosophy, accusing the mind of absorbing individuality.

The focus of the philosophy of existence is the problem of the essence of human life. According to existentialists, the essence (meaning, design) of human existence is in existence itself. Existence as an essence is hidden from a person by everyday life, it becomes clear to him only in "boundary situations" - between life and death. Fear of death is the only state in which a person leads a truly free, independent existence.

Soren Kierkegaard(1813-1855) - Danish theologian, philosopher, expressed distrust of reason. S. Kierkegaard's teaching boils down to the fact that reality is not identified with thinking, since it is unthinkable. Kierkegaard criticized previous philosophers, primarily Hegel, for taking a too abstract approach to man. They seek in a person only his essence, losing sight of the living and unique individuality with its thoughts and feelings. The deepest truths - life, death - are not known by logic, but are experienced directly. Philosophy is the experience of the eternal in finite existence, in the individual destiny of the individual. Experience is love, faith, longing, fear, they make up the world of human existence, and this existence is above all laws and patterns. The main thesis of Kierkegaard's religious existentialism is that reason leads a person to despair, faith saves and gives hope.

Existentialism), or the philosophy of existence, as one of the most influential and widespread trends modern philosophy appeared in the period between the two world wars (1918-39), which engulfed most of the Old and New Worlds. It was a time of reflection on past losses and disappointments, a time of anticipation of new, even more terrible shocks, a time of cardinal reassessment of old ideals and the formation of new ones. If the atmosphere of the early twentieth century still left room for refined feelings, imbued with light sadness, behind which lies hope for the best, then the war of 1914-18. showed mankind the reality of the end of civilization. As if from the depths of primitive consciousness, the darkest sides of human nature broke out: cruelty, the desire for superiority, destruction. Christian values ​​that had been cultivated for many millennia were discarded. In Germany, Italy and Spain, fascist regimes were born and rapidly came to power, relying on the base and animal instincts of people. Loneliness, individualism, loss of a sense of belonging to what is happening, restlessness - these are the main features of the mentality of that era. It was at this time that existentialism was formed - one of the most irrational and pessimistic philosophical movements, in which, like in a mirror, the general attitude of the people of that era was reflected.

As a spiritual trend, existentialism existed from the 20s to the 70s of the twentieth century and was represented by numerous teachings and schools. The founders of this philosophical direction are Martin Heidegger, Jaspers, Jean Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Albert Camus. The works of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche had the greatest influence on the existentialists. Existentialist philosophers often resorted to presenting their ideas in their own literary form (novels, essays, plays), although they were not alien to a certain philosophical methodology - so, they all rely more or less on the phenomenology of E. Husserl. There are religious existentialism (K. Jaspers, G. Marcel, N.A. Berdyaev, L. Shestov) and atheistic (M. Heidegger, J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus).

Existentialism starts from the most typical forms of radical disillusionment in history, which lead to the interpretation modern society as a period of crisis of civilization, crisis of reason and crisis of humanity. But existentialism does not act as a defender and justifier of this crisis. On the contrary, he protests against the surrender of the individual to this crisis. Existentialists believe that catastrophic events recent history discovered the instability, the fragility of not only individual, but also any human existence. An individual, in order to stand in this world, must first of all deal with his own inner world, evaluate his capabilities and abilities. The central concept of the doctrine is existence - human existence as an undivided integrity of an object and a subject. Comprehending himself as an existence, a person acquires freedom, which is the choice of oneself, one's essence. The choice of freedom imposes on the individual responsibility for everything that happens in the world.

The main setting of existentialism is that existence precedes essence, i.e. a person first exists, appears in the world, acts in it, and only then is defined as a personality. According to existentialism, man is a temporary, finite being destined for death. This motif is clearly expressed in the existentialist doctrine of "boundary situations" - the limiting life circumstances in which the human personality. And the main "boundary situation" is the situation in the face of death, "nothing", "to be or not to be" - in the secular variety of existentialism or in front of the world of transcendence - God - in the religious variety of existentialism.

Borderline situations put a person in front of a choice. A person must constantly choose one or another form of his behavior, focus on certain values ​​and ideals. For religious existentialism, the main moment of choosing "for" or "against" God. "For" means the path of faith, love, humility. As a result, an infinite bliss awaits a person.

Heidegger Martin(1889-1975) - a philosopher who played a decisive role in the formation and development of existentialism, although he did not call himself an existentialist. One of his outstanding works, to this day widely discussed in the philosophical community, was published in 1927 and was called "Being and Time". Heidegger claims that in modern world the question of being has fallen into oblivion. Being for him is a kind of non-objective beginning, founding the whole world of things. This is the "immanent transcendent". It is immanent because we know it from the inside of our own life, there is no need to look for being far, it is the closest thing for a person.

Human existence is finite, present existence.. Its essence is existence - openness, striving for something else, transitivity. This is ecstasy, transcendence. But what is the way out? To Nothing - says Heidegger (beyond any being, any objectivity). The constant exit to Nothingness is accompanied by the primordial Horror, which is always with us and wakes up from any shock. Striving for Nothing is an expression of our finiteness, temporality, but at the same time it is an entry into the truth of being. Being reveals its meaning precisely through human finitude, and not through "eternity" rationalist philosophy. It is essentially Being unto death.

The existence of man in everyday world can be characterized as "own" and "improper". "Improper being" is life "according to the type of others." Others act for us under the form of objects, looking at them, we begin to relate to ourselves in the same way. Looking at a person as an object makes everyone replaceable. There arises the "phenomenon of averageness", the fiction of the "average man". In "non-genuine being" a person is completely immersed in existence, and he does not remember about own death because his world is impersonal.

"Own being" is associated with awareness of one's mortality. In death, a person is not a function, not an object among objects. Here it is unique, it is an experience that cannot be repeated - the most proprietary. He who has realized death - exists, he is always ahead of himself. Dying is the life of a finite, temporal being.

As long as a person lives in the world of existence, he is always preoccupied . Care is made up of three things:

1. Being-in-the-world or the past. Being-in-the-world Heidegger also calls inflow, abandonment. It is never "clean". We find the conditions of our existence already prepared, they are determined before us.

2. Looking ahead is the future. Heidegger calls this a "project". The modification of everyday life "to be ahead of oneself", "to face death" becomes possible thanks to the call of conscience. Conscience for Heidegger is akin to truth, it comes to us in silence and reveals what is hidden, it is a call to be what you are. Conscience is an appeal to oneself, the implementation of a project "thrown" to me by being. The call of conscience is a fundamental possibility that is either realized or not.

3. The present - being with an intraworldly being. The present is everyday life. Heidegger wants to overcome this state, although he does not condemn it, since only from it can one come to being. The modes of everyday life are: chatter (gossip), in which speaking turns into an end in itself, and language into "information"; curiosity - an interest that is not related to the essence of things, an ambiguity that blurs the boundaries between authentic and inauthentic.

An important place in the work of M. Heidegger is occupied by the theme of nihilism and the understanding of this concept in the works of F. Nietzsche. Nihilism for Heidegger is the fate of the new European man, it is expressed in the aversion of the gaze from the supersensible world and complete immersion in material interests and passionate goal achievement. True humanism cannot consider man as a subject - a rational, volitional, grabbing, invading being. Man is not the chosen one of being. To be on earth means for a person to build, live, think.

As opposed to a rational nihilistic subject living in a depersonalized and alienated world, Heidegger draws an image of human existence "on earth", when being is not forgotten by people. This true existence - patriarchal peasant life- according to Heidegger, has a special experience of space, which is realized in the game of four principles: divine and mortal, earthly and heavenly. The receptacle of such a space is a house, a temple, a field. Here the soil breathes, the basis inherited from the ancestors, a person does not dominate the world here with the help of technology, he is organic and powerless. Rural labor, national landscape, soil find natural expression in poetic language. This is precisely the world, and not the "image of the world", and therefore it is pointless. "The world is at peace". Space is open and has no boundaries in the physical sense of the word, not a thing refers to a place, but a place to a thing, the relationship between distance and proximity is different. Far may be closer than near. Space is measured by the existential unit of time, which Heidegger calls "path". There are no boundaries between the inner and the outer, there is one in which we always stay.

The leading theme in the works of the late Heidegger is theme "being and language"Although modernity has forgotten being, it continues to live in the bosom of culture - through language. You need to learn to listen to the language without imposing modern constructions on it, let it speak. Modernity refers to language only as a means, a tool, it was even expressed in the identification of language with a part of the human body. It seems that this is something tangible and material. Language is becoming technical, becoming a means of transmitting information. In fact, language is speech, speech, saying, it is the "house of being." With the death of language like speech, the connection of man with being is lost, the living source of culture dries up. This is a huge danger. That is why the task of hearing the true voice of being, reviving the true language is so important. However, where is genuine speech heard? Heidegger looks for it in the roots of words and long-dead languages, as well as in the works of great poets, among the ancients Sophocles, and among the new ones Hölderlin and Rilke.

Karl Jaspers(1883-1969) Jaspers was one of the first to use the concept of "Existenzphilosophie" - the philosophy of existence. He himself noted (for example, in his "Philosophical Autobiography") that, starting from his early works, he developed existential philosophy, its main themes and concepts are questions about the world, given to a person, about the inevitable border situations for a person (death, suffering, guilt, struggle), about the main features of the era. But the central concept was, of course, existence. Realizing the unusualness and difficulty of mastering this concept, the philosopher again and again made persistent attempts to approach the "existential" side of human essence from different sides. And if we try without prejudice to delve into the meaning of Jaspers' thoughts, we will understand that under the auspices of the word "existence" we are talking about problems that have a deep life meaning for the individual and humanity. An existentialist philosopher says to a person: your truly human existence is “available” only when you act as a free being, when you do not allow yourself and other people to turn yourself into an object of manipulation; existence is associated with the search for the enduring meaning of being, with concern for the present being.

Existence, Jaspers further explains, is highlighted in situations of care and suffering - and especially in a borderline situation. The borderline situation is exactly the one in which "I cannot live without struggle and suffering", in which I "inevitably take the blame" and think about the "inevitability of death". Here - through death, suffering, struggle, guilt - the "specific historicity" of individual boundary situations manifests itself. Anxiety and anxiety, dictated by concrete historicity, grow into an open general question about the existence of the world and my existence in it. "The universal, which always remains so, is fused into the consciousness of existence; all world being - as having become, in the process of becoming and possible in the future - is seen in absolute historicity. The consciousness of being in a borderline situation, proceeding from the historical existence of an individual, deepens to the consciousness of a historically appearing being as such."

But such a "existential depth of existence", according to Jaspers, in a borderline situation is not at all given to the individual simply and directly. A special clarification is needed, highlighting the historicity of the situation. And here the most important thing is not to delegate "highlighting" to someone else, not to "delegate" to others purely individual, situational, mine and your guilt, pain and suffering. This is where the unique freedom must be preserved, as well as the "anxiety associated with the ability to choose" "". It must be taken into account, adds Jaspers, that in any single situation is unique and inimitable communication with other people, "grasping" by the individual of his I, his self through communication.

Everywhere and always, Jaspers insisted on the unity of the world-historical process. He argued that the task of the philosophy of history is solved in search of this unity, this meaning, the structure of world history, and it can only be connected with humanity as a whole. However, for Jaspers, who constantly emphasizes that humanity has a single origin and a single path of development, it is excruciatingly difficult to find the basis of this unity. In an age when neither science nor religion enjoys unconditional trust, the basis of this unity, Jaspers believes, can only be "philosophical faith", drawing its truths from biblical religion.

Jaspers stands up for "biblical religion", denoting by this the common thing that it finds in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which appears to him as a preaching of unity human race, a single spiritual connection. At the same time, the philosopher emphasizes that we are not talking about Christianity in general, but only about Christianity with "dogmatic content." Being an opponent of any completeness and dogmatism, Jaspers criticizes the claims to exclusivity inherent in any faith. He is a supporter of biblical religion, since he considers it the only comprehensive historical space from which each religion extracts the content it needs. This possibility is due to the lack of doctrine in the biblical religion in general and the fact that it does not give "anything completed."

Refusing to see the axis of world history in the appearance of Christ and advocating a radically different point for the search for its unity, Jaspers, at the same time, is not at all against faith as the basis for understanding the meaning of history. Despite the fact, he believes that the world religions could not offer a common faith for all, there is one. This is a philosophical belief. Jaspers is convinced that it is she who is called upon to serve as the basis for the unity of mankind. He calls the time of her birth the desired axis of world history - the "axial era" ("axial time", "axial period"). Human existence as history becomes from that moment the subject of reflection.

The axial period is a fact that is universally significant for all mankind. Jaspers does not share the Eurocentric concept of the origin of philosophy. He considers the formation of philosophy as a single spiritual movement, taking place "independently" and "independently" in India, China, and Europe. The triple historical modification in the manifestation of axial time serves, in his opinion, as a confirmation of the spiritual unity of mankind and, at the same time, is an expression of a call for "limitless communication" - the ability to see and understand others in order to understand oneself and overcome the narrowness of historicity closed in itself.

Like many other theologians and philosophers, Jaspers tried to solve the problem of rational justification of faith. Philosophical faith, he argued, is why the belief that the existence of the transcendent cannot be proved with the help of positive arguments of reason, but it is also philosophical because it nevertheless presupposes knowledge of transcendence, confirmed by the negative arguments of reason. That is why philosophical faith, as Jaspers thinks of it, is, as it were, on the border between religious faith and scientific knowledge.

Being as a whole, man, as well as the "final questions" - about the world, about the soul, God, being inaccessible to science, nevertheless are not unsolvable at all. They can be resolved with the help of faith, because only faith comprehends what lies beyond the limits of knowledge, and through the relation to transcendence "man can realize his true being." At the same time, philosophy is conceived by Jaspers as a special kind of knowledge, in which, however, the cognitive function has no value, and therefore he considers philosophical truth to be existential, that is, unique and one-time. It does not have a universally valid and coercive character as a science, and therefore does not lead to any results.

According to Jaspers, philosophizing does not mean the possession of truth, but its search, otherwise it would fall into dogmatism, that is, it would give final, complete, elementary knowledge. This does not happen precisely because philosophizing means for Jaspers "to be on the road". The spiritual unity of mankind, nourished from a mysterious transcendental source, also becomes a postulate of philosophical faith.

The most prominent representative of French atheistic existentialism is Jean Paul Sartre(1905-1980). Following Kierkegaard, Sartre proceeds from the fact that human existence is meaningless and absurd. And the absurdity of human existence must be heroically accepted. In this Sartre is close to the ancient Stoics, and in this Sartre's existentialism fundamentally differs from the existentialism of Heidegger and Jaspers, who tried to comprehend the meaning of human existence and history.

Sartre was educated at the Higher Normal School of Paris, then taught at lyceums in different cities of France. Being mobilized and having got to the front in 1940, Sartre ended up in German captivity. Returning a year later to France, he, together with Merleau-Ponty, founded the resistance group "Socialism and Freedom". After the war, he tried to get closer to Marxism, met with Fidel Castro and Che Guevara in Cuba and N.S. Khrushchev in Moscow, and in 1968 became the spiritual leader of the rebellious Parisian students who rebelled against the de Gaulle regime. When the uprising was defeated, Sartre accused the French Communist Party of not supporting the French students. In 1970, Sartre became editor of the Maoist newspaper Narodnoe Delo.

The first work that gave Sartre fame was Nausea (1938). AND "nausea"- this is not only the title of the novel, but one of the key words in Sartre's entire philosophy. This is one of "existentials" similar to what are in Kierkegaard and Heidegger "fear" and "concern". The main feeling that, according to Sartre, a person experiences in our non-genuine world is nausea. Everything that surrounds a person can only cause him nausea. "Others are hell," Sartre declares. "The worst kind of loneliness is being alone together." Thus, in the person of Sartre, we are dealing with extreme individualism.

Another important point of Sartre's philosophy is freedom. Man, from Sartre's point of view, is doomed to freedom. But freedom, as the essence of human existence, is inseparable from absurdity, from negativity, from nothingness. Thus, a person is doomed to these exhausting moments that cannot be ignored. However, freedom is not only an absurdity, but also a choice. A person differs from the things of the surrounding world in that he is able to design himself. And therefore, according to Sartre, people are distinguished by the fact that their existence precedes essence and determines it. This thesis became the philosophical creed of Sartre. But one must keep in mind that, according to Sartre, the individual projects and creates himself precisely through consciousness. And the most adequate for self-affirmation in this world is the state rebellion. The main thing here is not the purpose of the rebellion, but the very state of the rebellion. As soon as a person acquires some kind of stable being, peace and "meaning", he ceases to be free.

J.-P. Sartre in his work "Existentialism is humanism" explains the specifics of human existence as follows. When making a thing, a person first forms its idea. An artisan who makes a knife proceeds from his ideas about what a knife is and what kind of knife needs to be made now. The essence here, as it were, precedes the existence of the thing. In a fundamentally different way is the case with a person. A human child is born, already exists, but it has yet to acquire a human essence, to become a human being. So, in the human world, existence precedes essence. Dividing existentialism into two main directions - Christian (G. Marcel, K. Jaspers) and atheistic (M. Heidegger, A. Camus), J.-P. Sartre referred himself to the latter.

A person makes himself, gradually acquires his essence, initially already possessing existence - this is the first principle of Sartre's existentialism, from which many important consequences follow: there is no given human nature; no external force, no one but this individual, is able to turn him into a man. The individual must do it himself. And it is he who is responsible if his transformation into a man in the true sense does not take place. Despite the differences in approaches, existentialist philosophers inspire the reader with a sound and very important idea of ​​a person's individual responsibility for everything that happens to himself and to other people. A person is a kind of "project" that lives, unfolds, is realized or not realized, and the process of acquiring a human essence by an individual lasts all his life, without losing sharpness and drama.

J.-P. Sartre foresees possible objections to his concept - for example, an appeal to the force of circumstances: circumstances were against me - I did not serve and do not serve the cause for which I was intended, I did not meet people who could be loved, etc. For existentialism , Sartre answers this, there are no human abilities, his attraction to any business outside of their manifestation. And if a person has never loved anyone, has not shown a friendly disposition to anyone, it means that there are no such qualities and were not in his individual "project". Being on the road, that is, constantly taking care of finding one's essence, is a truly human, albeit not easy, lot full of drama.

Another representative of French atheistic existentialism was Albert Camus(1913-1960). The most famous works of Camus, as the story "The Outsider" (1942) and the novel "Plague" (1947). In addition, he wrote a number of plays, as well as philosophical works, most notably The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) and The Rebellious Man (1951).

Let's say a few words about his work "The Myth of Sisyphus". The subtitle of this work by Camus is "An Essay on the Absurd", and the focus here is still the same Kierkegaardian absurdity. Camus, like Kierkegaard, believes human life ontologically absurd: it is absurd not here and now, but always. And the only way out for a person is to heroically accept this absurdity of life. It all starts with the realization of the absurdity of life in a moment, Camus believes, "when the emptiness becomes eloquent, when the chain of everyday actions breaks, and the heart searches in vain for the lost link." “It happens,” he writes, “that the usual scenery collapses. Rise, tram, four hours in an office or factory, lunch, tram, four hours of work, dinner, sleep; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, all in the same rhythm - this is the path that is easy to follow day after day. But one day the question arises “why?”. It all starts with this bewilderment-tinged boredom.”

This state, which Camus defines in The Rebellious Man as boredom It has different consequences. So the positive meaning of boredom, according to Camus, lies precisely in the fact that it can awaken consciousness in a person. Boredom, writes Camus, awakens him and provokes further: either an unconscious return to the usual track, or a final awakening. A awakening sooner or later leads to consequences: either suicide or the restoration of the course of life. Boredom itself is disgusting, but here I must admit that it is beneficial. For everything begins with consciousness, and nothing apart from it matters. The observation is not too original, but it is just about the self-evident. For now, this is enough for a cursory review of the origins of the absurd. At the very beginning lies simply "care".

The absurd makes sense when it turns into rebellion. Thus, Camus' rebellion is, first of all, a man's struggle for his human dignity. And this dignity a person affirms already by the fact that he fights, and does not put up with his humiliated position. In rebellion, according to Camus, love and human solidarity are manifested.

The term " existentialism comes from the Latin word for existence. The forerunner of 20th century existentialism is the 19th century Danish thinker Søren Kierkegaard, who placed the unique and inimitable human existence at the center of his philosophy. After a long oblivion, the German thinker M. Heidegger turned to the philosophical work of S. Kierkegaard, who again introduced the problem of existence into philosophy, but not as a superficial existence as opposed to a deep essence, but as an open ™ and unique human possibility. Existentialism focuses on the themes of discovering the finiteness (mortality) of human existence, the analysis of everyday human life, the problems of alienation and inauthentic human existence, the search for FREEDOM and the MEANING of human existence.

In development existentialism it is customary to distinguish two stages:
1. First quarter of the XX century. It arises in Germany and Russia after the First World War as a philosophy of the crisis attitude of Western Europe. First World War showed that the value of human life is reduced to zero. The goal of existentialism is to find the lost meaning of human existence. Representatives of this stage are: Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger in Germany, Nikolai Berdyaev, Lev Shestov in Russia.
2. In the 1940s and 1960s, existentialism revived after the Second World War in France and Spain. Representatives: Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Gabriel Marcel, Pmona de Bouvoir, Hoss Ortega y Gasset.

Sometimes in the development of existentialism, religious existentialism (K. Jaspers, G. Marcel) and atheistic (M. Heidegger, J.P. Sartre, A. Camus) are singled out.

Basic provision philosophy of existentialism is a critique of the inauthentic human existence in the modern world. IN Everyday life a person does not show his true essence in any way; a person appears here as the sum of certain social roles. Criticism of the existing state of man as impersonal and alienated. Growing spiritual crisis, when a person manifests the most acute sense of wrongness, meaninglessness, unworthiness of his being. The world in which a person's life passes - the world of "Das Map" (M. Heidegger) - the world of anonymity, inauthenticity, averageness. This world is dominated by crowds, curiosity, ambiguity and chatter. According to A. Camus, this is the world of absurdity, in which a person also has no place.

But even at the bottom of the fall, a person still vaguely feels his involvement in the higher, no matter how humbled he is in life. M. Heidegger sees the way out of the world of non-genuine absurd existence in the liberation of man from the power of subjectivism and anthropologism of Western European thinking and in the discovery of his original unity with the basic being. The meaning of being is revealed through the discovery of the meaning of human existence and, in turn, the true meaning of human existence receives only near being.

For K. Jaspers, this way out is the unity of existence and transcendence (God), which is realized in the phenomenon of philosophical and existential communication.

The way out of the absurd world that Camus offers to man lies in a metaphysical rebellion that completely blows up alienated being and liberates man. Sartre believes that the true being of man is FREEDOM. Man is doomed to be free. A person does not exist as a thing, an object, a person is one who constantly overcomes himself, creates, creates himself. “A person is his own PROJECT”, “A person has no alibi!”, notes JP. Sartre.

Existentialism is a trend in modern Western philosophy that emerged in the 20th century as an attempt to create a new, in comparison with the existing, worldview that meets the views of modern man.

Existentialism as a philosophy established itself in Europe between the two world wars and remained a kind of fashion until the end of the 60s. This trend grew out of irrationalism, from the “philosophy of life” of the 19th century and got its name from the concept of “existence”, that is, existence, which was first introduced by the Danish philosopher S. Kierkegaard, and meant the way of being of a human person.

Philosophy as a specific field of knowledge has always posed and solved existential problems at every stage of its development. It arises and forms as a person’s reflection on himself, on his existence, on the essence of his being, on the meaning of life, on the place and role of a person in the world in which he lives, on the values ​​that determine his position in life.

Existentialism as a philosophical trend of the twentieth century continues this side philosophical knowledge when man is the main subject of philosophy. This trend is a product of a certain period of modern history, a reflection of the situation in which Europe found itself as a result of the First World War and after the Second World War, in the conditions of a spiritual crisis, military, economic, political, moral catastrophes. Therefore, we can say that in general it is a philosophy that reflects historical catastrophes and the place of a particular person in them and in their consequences.

As a current of philosophical thought, existentialism arose in Germany after World War I, and Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger were considered its founders; the second wave of existentialism appeared in France after World War II, and its representatives are Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. The representative of Russian existentialism of the twentieth century is N.A. Berdyaev, although the point of view is widespread in the Western world that the founder of existentialism is F.M. Dostoevsky. There is also existentialism religious(Marcel, Jaspers, Berdyaev) and atheistic(Sartre, Camus). Heidegger, with his doctrine called "fundamental ontology", never considered himself to be existentialism, although he predetermined its development with his ideas.

Existentialism as a direction of modern thought is not a system of certain philosophical views, but is a way of philosophical thinking, often expressed in literary form. Although the national, historical, personal characteristics of the authors leave their mark on the various teachings of existentialism, nevertheless, some common features characteristic of all its representatives can be distinguished:

the starting point of all knowledge is the analysis of the concrete being of the human person, which is the only true reality;

Thus, Jaspers, like all existentialists, believes that philosophy should be based not on abstract being, but on the being of a concrete human person. And Heidegger, for example, writes that in traditional philosophy, being was too often understood as the most abstract of all categories: as a supreme being, as the root cause, or simply as a set of qualities inherent in beings in general. He notes that people are the only beings who raise the question of being in general, only for them being is a personal, existential problem. Therefore, starting his study of the problem of being, Heidegger believes that such a beginning is the actual everyday life of a person, and people themselves are unique manifestations of being.

Sartre proceeds from the fact that human reality is completely unique in the world, incomparable with any other types of existence. He focuses on the subjective world of a person, on the problems of the individual being of a person. The real knowledge of man consists in considering him, first of all, as an individual being. This makes it possible to understand and realize the uniqueness, uniqueness of the human personality.

the assertion that existence (existence) precedes essence, that is, first a person is born, exists, does something, thinks, and then determines himself, his essence, striving for his individual goal;

According to Sartre, for example, nothing in the world can become the cause of human existence, human reality determines itself entirely, man is the cause of himself. Therefore, he proclaims the thesis: existence precedes essence. First, a person is born, and then he creates himself with his every action and deed. What a person becomes is determined by his individual choice, and not by a series of some external or even internal causes. A person simply exists, since there is no nature that could determine the way of his life, there are no norms and regulations, even "divine ideas" that determine what a person should do in his life. A person must constantly create himself, therefore, constantly question his existence, form his own personality, individuality and give meaning to his life. Man himself determines his essence, he is free in what he wants to see the world in which he lives, what he himself wants to become , and it is freedom that allows a person to manage his life as best as possible.

one of the main ones is the concept of "existence" - a way of being of a human personality, the central core of the human self, thanks to which it acts as a unique human personality and is considered as a process and an "open possibility";

Existence has two varieties:

unauthentic existence, where things, nature, material production, social ties act as beings. This environment opposes a person, and he, forgetting about his essential certainty, lives as a “living thing”.

Thus, Jaspers, criticizing the current position of a person in society, his faceless existence among the masses of people, believes that an individual has become a mere wheel in the huge machine of the modern state, has lost his independence, found himself in the grip of alien, inauthentic forms of existence. Heidegger, for example, notes that a person immersed in the world cannot be fully himself; in this case, human existence is determined by the existence of things, the natural or social environment, and this, in his opinion, is an unauthentic existence. With non-genuine existence, such an “objective view” of a person arises when it turns out to be completely replaceable by another person. This Heidegger calls the phenomenon of averageness. Such a reality levels the personality, everyone already wants to be like others, does not want to stand out from the crowd, and therefore it is impossible to make anyone responsible for their actions.

According to Sartre, a person can and should rely only on himself, not relying on any external circumstances, not submitting to any authorities, not focusing on traditions and attitudes. But this has a downside: a person has a feeling anxiety, so what "abandoned" into the world, he has to live with and for others, shaping life according to his choice. The person also has fear for choosing one's own values, for making one's own decisions, so a person tries to explain his actions by objective circumstances, supposedly reasons beyond his control, to hide behind some social role. This is an inauthentic existence that a person accepts as a result of free choice. One of the forms of inauthentic existence is the social life of a person, when society opposes the free development of the individual.

From the point of view of Camus, the world is unreasonable, as it is an extrahuman reality that has nothing to do with our desires and our mind; it is also irrational in its essence, but at the same time it is quite knowable. The individual is very often at the mercy of this world, is immersed in the routine of everyday life, and gradually boredom, melancholy, and melancholy take possession of him. At some point, a person begins to realize the absurdity of his existence and asks himself: how to live without a higher meaning? This awareness of the boredom of everyday existence, the meaninglessness of life, its irrationality Camus calls the feeling of absurdity. At the same time, the philosopher emphasizes that absurdity equally depends on a person and on the world - this is the only connection between them, it manifests itself only in their joint presence, existence, collision.

Therefore, a person who knows the finiteness of his existence, it is necessary to rise through free choice from non-authentic existence to authentic. But this transition cannot be made automatically or by the natural maturation of man; its inner core is revealed in border situations, which can be suffering, fear, guilt, struggle, illness or even death, but not your own, but those of loved ones.

true existence, or existence,- this is a special kind of existence that opens up a transcendent possibility of going beyond the limits of everyday life, a breakthrough to "one's own possibility of being", a transition from impersonal being to self-existence, from inauthentic to genuine existence.

Heidegger believes that awareness of the finiteness of being a person is very important for his life, understanding its meaning, and awareness of the phenomenon of death allows a person to move from an inauthentic existence to a genuine one. According to Jaspers, the acquisition of existence, of true existence, is associated with "existential communication". This is such communication between people, which means an internal, freely chosen connection of people, where they open up to each other as valuable and unique personalities, and do not play the roles assigned to them by society. A person comes to existential communication only as a result of preliminary concentration in himself, awareness of his real aspirations and desires.

Sartre believes that the true existence of man is connected with the implementation of the fundamental project, which is the man himself. A project is an idea, aspiration, a goal towards which a person orients his activity and which is always incomplete while a person is alive. He is always open to new opportunities, he must constantly make himself, create, invent and be responsible for the fundamental project of his life. No one can be to blame if the project cannot be realized, the reason must be sought only in oneself, and not attributed to circumstances.

According to Camus, the only way of true existence can be rebellion - it is a protest against everything that oppresses, suppresses a person, humiliates his dignity, against the injustice of the human lot, against the absurdity of life.

the most developed concept of the philosophy of existentialism is the concept of freedom;

Finding himself as an existence, a person for the first time acquires his freedom, which consists in not acting as a thing that is formed under the influence of natural and social necessity, but “choosing” himself, shaping himself with his every action and deed.

This problem is most clearly reflected in the work of Sartre. Firstly, he believes that a person is initially free, "doomed" to freedom, "condemned" to be free, since from birth he is not limited by any settings, frameworks, prescriptions. Secondly, a person makes a free moral choice, "chooses himself" in the process of development. And this choice, which each person is forced to make constantly, is determined by personal responsibility. Therefore, for Sartre, freedom means the responsibility that lies with the person himself for his existence, for who he will become, with what content he will fill his existence.

But a person is responsible not only for his individuality, he is responsible for all people. Each of us, creating the image of a person as he would like to be, at the same time creates an image of a person as he should be, that is, an image that is significant for the entire era as a whole. This means that the responsibility of man extends to all mankind. He writes: "Choosing myself, I choose a person in general." Sartre believes that human being is freedom, it does not depend on other people, but as soon as action begins, everyone must desire the freedom of others, moreover, a person discovers that freedom depends entirely on the freedom of other people, and the freedom of others depends on his freedom. .

Thus, in real life it turns out that only responsibility determines the free, conscious choice of a person, and for Sartre it is quite obvious that freedom is, first of all, responsibility. Man is an active, active individual who can never avoid making a choice and taking full responsibility for this choice.

the problem of the meaning of life permeates the work of all existentialist philosophers. Camus, for example, argues that the absolute, highest value is the very life of a person and his dignity. Life is the only value that cannot be subjected to any doubt, and it must be constantly saturated with meaning. And the source of meaning is the life of every person; it is unique, unique and unrepeatable. This is the affirmation of humanism, which existentialists consider the essence of their teaching.

Thus, in the philosophy of existentialism, an active, active position is expressed, which consists in the fact that every free person is considered as a unique, unique person who is responsible for all his actions, and does not justify himself by circumstances. A person is what he himself decided to be in this world.

The ideas of existentialism had a huge impact on the entire culture of the twentieth century and continue to do so now, as it reflects the fundamental principles of human existence in an environment where many people tend to lead an "inauthentic existence." These ideas can be found not only in the work of philosophers, but also in existentially thinking writers all over the world.

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COURSE WORK

in psychology and pedagogy

Topic: Existence as the meaning of human existence

INTRODUCTION

The question of the meaning of life torments every person throughout his life or only for some time. One way or another, but everyone should o T answer the question "Why do I live?" on our own, because no one but us can live this life.

The novelty of the work is that here will be presented a solution to one of the "eternal", "damned" questions of philosophers and each person individually, considered through existential philosophy.

The relevance of the research topic lies, first of all, in the fact that the very meaning of the word "existence" causes confusion for many people. T in. But through the prism of this particular concept, existentialist philosophers With looked at the problem of determining the significance and fullness of people e com of his being.

The theoretical significance of this work is in fact very great. You can talk about the philosophy of existentialism for a very long time. l ugh, it's unclear and complicated. One of the tasks of this work is the task of control O to perceive the very philosophy of existentialism, as well as to understand how A What is the practical significance of existentialism.

Practical significance in this work can not be found due to its focus on theorization and concretization of the studied material. Slightly supported by examples from life, dry and not completely clear O provisions of the theory of existentialism will help to understand in the future n the bones of this theory and at the same time better understand the meaning and mechanisms of action of practices.

The solution to this issue cannot bypass anyone: we are all involved in an intellectual and semantic battle with ourselves and understanding our life, giving it a certain price and a special unique meaning. To p O to understand where in life you need to go further, you need to understand the concepts of “b s tie”, “existence”, “existence”, “life”, which will be the subject of consideration in this work.

Objectives of this work:

1. Designate the concepts of "being", "existence", "life", "e To consistency” from different angles of view;
2. Simplify to the perception of the position of the theory of existence a lisma;
3. Give a more complete development of the concept of a philosophical cat e goria "ex and stentia";
4. Consider the model of human life from an existential point of view;
5. Find reflections of this model in life.

The main task of this work is to understand what "existence" is and how it can manifest itself in a person's life.

Subject of research philosophical concepts-problems "being", "e To sistence", "existence".

The object of study in this work is the philosophy existentialism, which found its expression in the monographs of Phil O Sofov Zh.P. Sartre, M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers and others.

The research methodology used to complete the tasks, a comparative analysis of the views of the philosophers of existentialism, neg. A women in monographs, encyclopedic dictionaries, textbooks, in an article on practical psychology.

THE PROBLEM OF THE MEANING OF LIFE

The problem of the meaning of life has always stood before man most acutely and has always tormented him throughout his history. This pr O The problem, first of all, is that the truly true, correct, single meaning With la life is impossible to withdraw.

This situation is primarily due to the fact that each person O the age living on the planet is unique, individual and has not much in common with the majority of humanity, which he simply does not know and, which is no less important, is practically unable to recognize.

1.1. Statement of the problem or why it is needed, problem

The formulation of the problem of the meaning of life here is not accidental. If philosophy f Since the first side of the question will always exist and constantly change, then the personal, currently existing, momentary statement of the question where O more important and closer to each of us than the philosophical h thinking about the ontology of everything that exists.

So, each of us needs some kind of meaning to continue or fill our life with something important. A logical question arises: why? Is it really impossible to just live and not think about anything, not think about such categories as “being”, “existing”, “meaning of life”, “meaning of being”, “existence”? In fact, it is possible, but it is possible to live this way for a very short time. Let's explain why.

In each of us, from our very childhood, there are certain inclinations, which are subsequently realized by us or remain in the process. e reservations. These inclinations include the makings of the ability to communicate and to G nitivnymi processes (processes of knowledge). Imagine that our cognitive processes are more pronounced than the ability to communicate, well e desire to communicate with other people. Then, according to Jung's classification, we would be introverts, that is, people who are aimed at inner world who draw information and forces that give them an impetus to action and h inside, out of yourself. So, we don’t communicate much, but we constantly think, we have an internal dialogue. It can be about anything, up to an argument with myself about whether I am doing the right thing, with almost no communication with anyone. Bye h e lovek so constantly argues with himself, in the course of an internal dialogue during h new questions arise that a person has not even thought about before.

However, it would be wrong not to mention the opposite of intra O vertu extrovert. This person does not draw strength from within himself, but receives them from outside. He is constantly busy with something, collaborating with someone, arguing, himself O expresses himself, communicates, and it is through this activity that he finds in himself about G rum reserves of strength and energy. While the introvert was thinking about the meaning of everything he created or, on the contrary, not created, the extrovert was already tired of his constant employment and, finally, stopped looking at the truth in chapter A behind. He begins to look for meaning in all his previous activities, looking for an answer to the question, "is there any sense in this, or has he spent so many years for no reason?"

So, having gone through all the topics and questions that worried a person, he inevitably stumbles upon one of the most dangerous ontological questions about the meaning of life. How a person answers this question depends on his And feeling, awareness of oneself in society, this issue is directly related to A human consciousness. But how can this question be answered if And verse does not exist? Everyone answers it himself: someone sees his meaning of life in helping relatives and friends in difficult and simple life situations, the so-called accompanying loved ones along the path of life; someone in self-realization and achievement of certain successes; someone in the service of higher powers or even the church; someone in the service of the motherland and so on.

Regardless of what meaning a person chooses for himself, in any case it will be one of the most important aspects of his existence. T vovanie. Choosing your meaning is like choosing the right soil for the whimsical plant that we are.

1.2. The meaning of problem words, or the emergence of main themes

Every day we ask ourselves a new meaning of our life, because we determine the importance, fullness and necessity of certain events. s ty that will happen to us during this day. We always need an answer to the question “why?” in order to strengthen our sense of self-esteem, so that we b To express the fullness and express the meaning of this or that action, we need to know in the name or for the sake of what we are doing this, why we have chosen this particular route and not another. In the life of a modern person, there are many T in temptations, values, goods, the personal value of which is determined e only the person himself is lying. Being in a situation of constant choice, he decides what is more important to him, what is more interesting to him, with the choice of each new value or temptation, creating a special motivation, a basis for a new push, which And leads him to another stage of his own development. So every service A a clerk, a janitor or a salesman fills his every day with something special, like and once inwardly, perhaps sometimes unconsciously answering this with A my question in a new way.

However, along with the everyday answer to the question “why?”, this one in O there are several points of view famous philosophers Western E V ropy. First of all, it is worth discussing the meanings of the main categories of ontol O logical knowledge such as "being", "existence", "life".

“Being 1) an abstract concept denoting the existence of anything at all (both material and ideal phenomena); 2) concept, cat O eye in materialistic philosophy the whole world around us, existing objectively, independently of our consciousness, is denoted. So, we have a category that is no longer just abstract and exists somewhere outside our consciousness, but has a clear definition, even if it does not give us any guarantees that this very definition is correct. e laziness.

If we consider the existence of a person, then we can designate it as with at existence as such of a person, people and objects around him, his idea A fishing, concepts, ideas and desires. But in order to more deeply understand the meaning of this concept, we need one more, no less important “existing t vovanie".

“Existence is an aspect of every being, in contrast to its other a With pect essence. Unlike the concept of "being", the concept of "existence" always remains only an aspect of being, while the concept of "being" is used b also in the sense of "everything that exists", "the world as a whole". special m e one hundred occupies the question of the existence (existence) of man”, . So about b at once, we see that existence is one of the aspects of being, which does not contradict it in any way, but is in close relationship with it, is T is a part of himself and is therefore determined by him.

Well, if we understand the meanings of these two philosophical cat e Gory, it is worth moving on to the next of them, which occupies a central place in our study, namely, to "existence".

Existence (from lat. exsisto come from, be born from; in lane e in a nominal sense to discover oneself) is one of the fundamental philosophies f skeptic categories, revealing the concrete being of a thing, not fully covered by discursive thinking. According to Heidegger Being T vovat "be-ahead-of-yourself".

Existence is a level of human existence that cannot be an object scientific research. It is non-objectivable, i.e. can never be presented as an object of consideration. Here is how Jaspers himself explains it: "At any moment when I make myself an object, I myself simultaneously e there is something more than this object, namely, a being that can thus objectify itself. A which I can be represented as an object, I "lose myself, confuse what I am for myself with what I myself can be."

So, we proceed to consider the most interesting and at the same time with A my incomprehensible category of the philosophy of existentialism. According to K. Jaspers "e To sistance cannot be an object of study for anyone, because then it ceases to be an existence as such, because it is non-objectivable, since it exists only here and now. According to M. Heidegger, existence is O is understood as “the existential device of the existent, which exists”, that is, continuously exists. In his opinion, “in the idea of ​​such an existential arrangement T va already lies again the idea of ​​being. And thus the opportunity to spend e The understanding of the analytics of presence depends on the previous study of the question of the meaning of being in general”, . According to J.P. Sartre "the existence of antecedent e corresponds to the essence", which means that "the person first exists, meeting T Xia, appears in the world, and only then it is determined.

It turns out that a person is like a blank sheet of paper, not yet touched by anyone's opinion, prejudice or stereotypes. Getting into this world, to use Heidegger's favorite epithet, a person is "abandoned" at the time in which he found himself. He has to somehow b interact with his environment at once, adapt to existing e existing conditions, to create, being in a situation of constant choice and risk, for themselves new, more favorable conditions and risks. Even if about b grow your outlook on life, on practice, you can see that this is an action T surprisingly: a person often finds himself in situations of choice, where there is at least m A a small share, but still a risk. Choosing a more acceptable path, a person will inevitably and but opens up new opportunities and risks that were included Yu cheny in his choice in advance or are formed spontaneously. So a person first goes his own way, making mistakes, "stuffing bumps", and then O accepts its essence, which is hidden behind each situation of the made choice.

However, one should not think that a person lives unconsciously, automatically, taking advantage of the fact that his existence changes under the influence of time and various factors. “Being itself, to which presence can relate in one way or another and has always related in some way, we call existence. I p O since it is essential to determine this being through the assignment of the objective, which is impossible, rather its essence lies in the fact that it always has to be its being as its own, to designate this being it is chosen as an expression of chi With of that being, the title "presence" .. But a person is not just an owl R makes some choice he feels responsibility and risk, he is included in this situation, experiences it, is present in it, that is, he is aware of the answer T value for each of his actions, his location in the situation and some O the second range of possibilities and consequences of the choice being made.

2. EXISTENCE AS THE MEANING OF BEING

Feuerbach once said: “Man is nothing without an object. great, in s gifted people, revealing to us the essence of man, confirmed this with their lives. They knew only one predominant passion: the desire for O achieve the goal that was the main subject of their activity. Indeed, we all need some kind of subject for which we would at dem to navigate, or in relation to which we will perform our activities. In science, there have long been concepts of needs and values, which subsequently create our motives for action, activity, in s make our plans for life. What should be the plan for life in O mind of an existentialist?

2.1. Plans for life, or what is a person

The existential model of personality is based on a different concept of And kinds of internal conflict. The main conflict lies not in the suppression e instinctive drives, and not in conflict with significant adults in a person's childhood: instead, a conflict is postulated between personality and the "givens" of existence.

What are these "givens" of existence? A thinking person can see them without much difficulty. If we "bracket" the outside world, if we can put aside the business daily worries that O with which we usually fill our lives, and to think more deeply about our situation in the world, then we will encounter some "ultimate worries a mi" (ultimate concerns ) (as defined by Tillich), which represent with O battle is an inevitable part of human existence in the world.

I. Yalom identifies four ultimate concerns that have O medium relation to psychotherapy: death, freedom, isolation, and T The Effect of Meaning (1981). The opposition of each of them determines, within the framework of e To existential approach, the content of human internal conflicts.

§2.1.1. Death

Death has always frightened mankind with its mystery, incomprehensible O stu and finiteness, the inability to repeat all over again. starting oso h to find oneself in this world, a person inevitably faces death St. O their relatives, friends, relatives, or even neighbors whom he did not know well during their lifetime. "Everything," as Spinoza (1954) argued, "wants to insist on its continued existence." And a person runs away from the awareness of his finiteness, inventing all sorts of myths for himself.

The myth of his exclusivity, for example, saves him from this yo the logo of knowledge, and the person closes with a phrase like "It won't happen to me, because it happened to him, and I not him." Man on a rational level T personally understands that this excuse, created by himself, is just a fiction, but at the level of the unconscious, he firmly believes in his uniqueness, at the same time O allowing your self to feel even more significant and unique about Rome.

The myth of the existence of a personal omnipotent guardian with one O Rona further emphasizes a person's own vulnerability, and on the other hand allows him to forget about anxiety. After all, there is no need to worry you already “have an all-powerful patron who will lead away misfortune and death.”

By avoiding the thought of death, a person creates problems for himself: so, A example, being sure that a person will not die tomorrow, he immediately O makes a plan for tomorrow next week, detailed plans for the rest of your life. However, as the classic said, "sometimes he is suddenly mortal, that's the trick!".

Therefore, it is not worth planning much, because not all of our expectations A nias can be justified and real, but you should not give up either. E With If our life depends on us, and our death does not depend on us, it’s better not to wait for it around every corner, but to create something that directly depends on us n but shu life.

§2.1.2. Liberty

Freedom to modern man, like death, seems to be something even more amorphous and incomprehensible. The principle “if there is no God, then everything is O leno" from the point of view of morality cannot act due to the limited n of our freedom with the freedoms of others. Then the only thing left for a person is e to live, to worry about the uncertainty of the meaning of freedom and, following it, one's own position.

If we truly create our own world and our own sch ness, as philosophers such as Heidegger and Sartre argue, then it also means that there is no ground beneath us: only an abyss, emptiness, So what.

An important internal dynamic conflict is based on opposition I freedom: the conflict lies between the awareness of freedom and groundlessness and our deep need for foundation and structure.

Therefore, it is important to understand how and how different l Yu di on some of the most important aspects of freedom, namely responsibility and readiness for it. So the levels of responsibility taken in one sieve A tions different people, differ no less than the response levels T values ​​taken by one person in different situations.

To be aware of responsibility for a situation means to be on the threshold of th action or, in a therapeutic situation, and in anticipation of change. Goto V Integrity, as May (1969) points out, consists of desire and determination. Many people have great difficulty experiencing or expressing their desires. A niya. Desire is closely related to feeling. People with blocked affect A We cannot act spontaneously because they cannot feel and, as a result, cannot desire.

However, along with all aspects of freedom, there are two more forms of freedom itself. Conventionally, they can be called "freedom-from" and "freedom-for". If we turn to the history of all mankind, we can see that all his life a person has sought to free himself from something: from nature, the influence of d different countries to another, discrimination, dependence of one market on another O go and so on. Existentialists clearly noted that for better development And It is the second form of freedom, “freedom-for”, that is necessary for a person to feel and feel himself in the world. The time has come not to get rid of something, but to find St. O Bodu for the implementation of the plan. Now you need to look for yourself the freedom for personal growth, your favorite business, creating a family, and many important things for you. A waiting and many things.

§2.1.3 Insulation

Existential isolation is complete isolation, as from other l Yu dey, and from the world. It refers to deeper layers than other forms of isolation. No matter how close we are to another person, there is always one last, impenetrable gap. Each of us enters the world alone and must leave it alone.

In order not to feel isolated from others, any person will look for a company in which he could dissolve, forget that he is alone in the world, he will look for a lover in whom, just like in a company, but more intimately can hide from fear ex And potential isolation. A person, merging with something greater than himself, subconsciously feels support, some kind of support, and under the influence of this calming factor begins to realize himself not as a separate person from everyone, an individuality, but as part of a whole, which, if necessary, will be protected from everything and even from of death.

While no relationship can destroy isolation, it can be shared with other people in a way that will lessen the pain. If a person recognizes isolation in his own existence and resolutely opposes And stands up to it, then he will be able to turn lovingly towards others. If, on the contrary, when faced with isolation, a person is overcome by fear, then he will not be able to turn to others, but will instead use them as A insulation shield. In this case, any relationship will not be a genuine relationship, but will only be distortions of what could be genuine. n relations.

Some people (and this is especially true for people with borderline personality disorder) experience panic when they are alone, h the nickname of this panic is the dissolution of the boundaries of the ego. These people begin to doubt their own existence and believe that they exist only in And in the absence of others, exist only as long as they are answered or thought of by other people.

§2.1.4. senselessness

The fourth ultimate concern is meaninglessness. If ka and every man must die, and each creates his own world, and to A Everyone is alone in an indifferent universe, then what meaning can life have? Why do we live? How are we supposed to live? If there is no predetermined meaning in life, then each person must create his own b essential meaning in life. The fundamental question then arises: "Is it possible that the meaning I have created is stable enough to be the foundation of my life?" .

As mentioned in the first chapter, every person needs to A some kind of support, which can also be a meaning. Meaning plays a huge role for a person - this is his confidence that he is acting correctly, this is his foundation on which he begins to build his life. Being with A to my own architect and foreman, the person himself selects the materials from which his project will be built. Therefore, the search for meaning for a person means almost the most important part of construction. Inspection of the “earth-potentials”, laying first the “reinforcement-possibilities” and “strengthenings-claims”, and then the “foundation-meaning” means for a person O the structure of almost his entire life.

A sense of the meaning of life is necessary for another reason: from cm s word scheme, we derive a hierarchy of values. Values ​​provide us with a plan for how to behave in life; values ​​tell us not only why we are And we know, but also how to live.

A fourth internal conflict arises from this dilemma: How at a society that demands meaning finds meaning in a world that has no meaning? .

Thus, we see that a person for existential philosophy O philosophy and psychology is not the subject of study, but is a living person O century, existing in the immediate given, and not as a combination of vl e beliefs, archetypes and conditioning. Instinctive impulses and history are of course taken into account, but only as parts of the life, struggles, feelings and thoughts of a human being, with its unique conflicts and hopes, fears, relationships. However, along with "liveness" and O Existential psychology sees man as the means of man, and how, with at a society that is constantly afraid and suffering. A person is afraid, first of all, of the unknown, uncertainty, and suffers from the unfulfillment of his dreams, the inability to express all his abilities and potentialities.

However, a person is also distinguished by his ability to choose. Sposo b Only man has the power to choose. This is explained, first of all, by And by which he has special structures in the brain and, as a result, the presence of the psyche. In philosophy, F.G. Jacobi: “An animal cannot choose between life and death; it has only sensuous strivings, which all lead to preservation and which compel it to continue its existence on earth. Only man can choose."

2.2. Why existence, or why you need to choose

Man, as mentioned above, every day meets with And choice tuition. It can be absolutely various situations choosing from deciding in the morning what to wear, to deciding financial or O lytic problems.

Faced daily with various kinds of difficulties, a person and With tortures a sense of anxiety for his future life, fate and situations of choice in which he will be in the future. suspense with b natural existence and "abandonment" at the time in which a person comes T life, frightens him, shakes his inner peace, and because of that he is constantly in a state of stress, which, with an increase in psychological or even physical stress, can develop into a depressive state. O standing. Thus, uncertainty about the future affects people O century no less than a specific extreme situation.

A person needs self-confidence, specific goals, ideals that he can bring to life. His life depends on his level of And tensions, character, motivation and much more. If, according to Freud, a person rushes from the satisfaction of his desires to the ideals of behavior, n by himself under the influence of society, then, according to the existential b noah psychology, a person is between his potencies, capable of O ties, its system of world order and the present state of affairs, p e ality, to about toraya only escalates the situation and increases the pressure.

So, a person, not finding the opportunity to fulfill his plan, suffers from the fact that he “did something wrong”, or from the fact that he was “born at the wrong time”. If the first accusation of oneself is a conscious and fully justified choice, then the time in which a person is born is a more objective category. So, if a person made a mistake and, as a result of introspection and analysis of newly formed circumstances, understands that only he is responsible for the existing order of things, then from the realization that at another time his choice would have been more appropriate and would have brought more benefit, it depresses him even more. . Man, being a being, is inherently weak, x O even look in their own eyes and the eyes of others strong, independent. Here is another fear that also takes away his strength. “You need to do everything to become independent, because the image of an independent and successful person e ka is valuable in our time, thinks modern man and spends his life and strength not on what could be spent with greater benefit and on foot.

A person, falling into his time, does not know how he needs to live, because no one showed him the script, the plan, or let him read the book written about him. So he, realizing that his life depends only on him, A begins to learn from his mistakes, making certain choices, realizing A vaya risks of each of the options for solving the problem, tries to calculate, pr e guess all the possible events coming from each of the decisions in order to give yourself confidence or reduce the degree of pressure that fell upon him e vogue. A person can spend his life like this to get rid of anxiety and awareness of the risks of his reality, instead of weighing everything reasonably and understanding that risks and anxiety do not need to be afraid, well and but only to find the best option. Nobody knows the exact A the right plan of your life, therefore, in addition to realizing your defenselessness before circumstances, your responsibility for every committed in s boron, another global problem arises before a person, namely, the at the loss of support, "groundlessness," as Heidegger called it.

As already mentioned, a person needs self-confidence n right, it is also important for him to feel the validity of his decision. However, no one can say how right we choose. So we have no support. It has long been known that a person comes and goes from this world all alone. All his life he is surrounded by the same loneliness as himself. They, like him, were given the opportunity and the ability to choose one's life, the distance between oneself and other people, the degree of their closeness. However, none of these solitudes knows how to live correctly. Based on their subjectivity, each of them I decisively determines how they should live their own way. But that's no reason to panic and oh T hope. Man is thus free to create his own ideal of man, in O flattening this image into his own ideal. Choosing, we declare to the whole world that it is important to us, thereby saying that you consider this choice to be the most complete description of a person, more inherent in him. Making his choice consciously, each person creates his own model of life, which other people can repeat besides him, or, by virtue of the un And The validity of this model will not be repeated by anyone else.

“There is a view that existence is unity with the world, and again there is that very essence, it is again simplified to essence. And now we are all one in existence, and we all feel the same thing in existential b In other situations, in borderline situations, we all feel the same thing, and in this we are united. It is as if it does not exist, the uniqueness of this state.

But it must be said that existence is felt not only in a borderline situation, but also in the process of creativity. It is in the process of R quality, unique self-expression, we can know and feel something that others will never experience. Mozart felt his symphonies, and no one will ever feel these feelings. We bring in something that no one will ever feel instead of us.”

Based on the subjectivity of a person's perception of those around him Yu events and the circumstances affecting him, it is quite possible to assert that each person creates around himself such a reality, about b standing, gathers around him such people, in his opinion, who are important and necessary, necessary for his self-development and self-actualization and tsii.

"Man is the blacksmith of his own happiness," they say among the people. For copies And potentialists, this always sounds relevant, because it is in this that they see the humanity and positivism of their theory. In fact, if the O live Heidegger's theory of "abandonment of man in time", which he detailed in his book "Being and Time", the essence of which was With covered a little higher, one can understand that such ideas were received not without reason. Therefore, existential thought is effective and can help facilitate the existence of every person who wants to understand what is wrong with oh worth its essence.

The only obstacle to the implementation and application of the existential model of life is the unwillingness or even fear of people. O century to meet with the existing order of things, to accept your answer T vein for his life and weakness in the face of a series of independent of him about b standing.

"And that's why

relentlessly liberated from aspirations,

you will see the most secret of it,

relentlessly striving,

you will see his face.

Both have the same origin

and differ only in name.

For the unknown, all names are one.

To see the miraculous in the miraculous

here is the key to all the mysteries of the world.”

In order to live your life, you need not only to choose, etc. And to choose consciously, in addition to making a choice, a person must feel T vow that it is important and necessary for him. Live the situation, literally b but to be involved in what is happening, as sometimes we are captured by O reading a book or watching a movie, so we must be involved in your R value of your life. After all, only we are responsible for what we have in her case. T Xia, happening, changing.

Looking at our own life, at the things and circumstances happening around us, we can see that we ourselves create the fate that And accustomed to blame for their misfortunes. Existence implies constant becoming, in the sense of emerging evolution, overcoming the past and A worthwhile to achieve the future. Therefore, a person can build his life the way he needs, only realizing the importance of his freedom and responsibility. T responsibility for one's own being, applying to this all the necessary And liya and not being afraid to live, feel and want something for real.

CONCLUSION

Summing up, it is important to note that the relevance of this topic was confirmed by several examples from life. Since each person at one time meets on his life path with questions about the meaning of life. h nor, the relevance of work that studies aspects of human existence is always A is not important and necessary for a person.

The set goal of designating and revealing the concepts of "being", "life", "existence" from various angles of view was fulfilled immediately in the first chapter. To better understand the problem, it is necessary to know the term And nology and meaning of keywords, because it is with these concepts that we will think in the future.

If the word "being" is a complete concept, covering the existence of the entire space around us, then the concepts of "life" and "existence" are narrower and consider some aspects of being. Life in biology is described as a way of existence of protein bodies, but it is unacceptable to consider human life in this vein. Such an unusual concept as an existence comes to our aid. Considering it from different positions of different philosophers, we realized that existence is subdivided into at only the fact that a person, not knowing all his potentialities and often l does not reveal itself with fullness, but “being abandoned” at one time and den survive in it and reckon with the conditions and realities in which he tries O is running at the moment. In other words, a person first exists, and only then does he realize his essence, understanding the consequences of his mistakes. And side and realizing their true desires.

One of the difficulties that arose in the study of the philosophy of existential n socialism, is the blurring and dispersion of monographs of its fundamental O lies of both the concept itself and other central categories of this f And losophy. In this work, brief and structured provisions of existentialism were presented. Thanks to the achievements of the creators of practical e Existential psychology of I. Yalom and R. Mey, we can now better understand what “ultimate existential concerns” mean and what role they play in our lives. Therefore, the purpose of simplifying the reproduction And yatiya provisions of existentialism can be considered completed.

Through the same "ultimate concerns" one can understand that existential n tion includes not a simple existence, but a complex, saturated e action along the path of life with the acceptance or non-acceptance of their problems, features, potentialities, desires and all sorts of concerns. Considering the way O to escape death, freedom, meaninglessness and isolation, we have come to realize that some aspects of our behavior can be at caught not only by desires and inclinations, as described by Z. Freud, but also by fears and anxieties. Through examples from our own lives, passing our experience through the prism of the four "ultimate concerns", the theory of e To existentialism acquires new colors, begins to speak independently b but, through our lives. Thus, with the help of life examples, we achieved another goal that we set from the very beginning we gave a complete development of the concept of "existence".

Having considered the model of human life from an existential point of view, we realized the true importance of our life, the need for its conscious O and the impossibility of our not being included in it. Yes, according to existential n social model of life, a person needs to be aware of many things and factors that constantly affect him, to approach the situation of choice as seriously as possible (after all, choosing something important for himself personally, a person chooses And important for all mankind). It is important to understand that his whole life is A hangs only from himself and therefore does not run away from the responsibility for his life, entrusted to him from the very beginning of his life. life path, and boldly look into her eyes, and do everything to become happy in this life. Even if we run from our existential isolation, this does not mean that it is bad. On the contrary, if a person, hiding from his isolation, is constantly in a team where he successfully functions, this will suit him and about b society only for the benefit. But if a person completely denies that he is alone in life, no one can live this life for him and that this is impossible and h change, then this can already be considered as, at least, the rejection of h A sti of his existence.

According to existentialists, a person is in constant anxiety. O ge for yourself, for your family, your affairs, the future, and so on. A person, having at his disposal a certain number of opportunities, potentialities and any internal desires, aspirations that he seeks to realize, meetings A comes face to face with a reality that often does not correspond to his d statements about her. Hence these feelings arise: when a person has no reason to continue his activities, when the reality is such that his aspirations cannot find their embodiment in life a natural sense of meaninglessness and anxiety. Anxiety should help a person, m O bilize your strength to overcome an obstacle, solve a problem, just as fear prepares the body for a protective action. In e To In existential psychology, anxiety is a certain indicator of a person's life position. The more he worries, the more he is included in most aspects of his existence. yu chen.

If a person is worried about something, is worried, then the subject of these feelings is undoubtedly important for him. Otherwise he wouldn't have experienced such em O rational ups and downs with respect to something. Coming from uro V anxiety, so you can get another quality O indicator of human life involvement, involvement in life.

And so, having tried on some provisions of existential b philosophy, we understand that living is not in vain, osmy helps us With laziness of our life. Filling each of your choices, endowing each tr e With a certain meaning that we can safely equate with the concept of our very life, we do not waste time, do not wait for our end and do not hide from freedom and isolation. So we can maneuver between many possibilities. O sty, choosing only the important and well and new to ourselves.

We need to be aware of the burden of responsibility, which is directly related to the burden of freedom given to us from birth. Only by filling our lives with meaning, important, significant for ourselves, defending our views and m that by declaring ourselves, we can hope for the fulfillment of our dream, oprah V giving hope and acceptance by the world of our meaning of being. Except ourselves, no one can live this life as skillfully as we do, so it’s worth it l its thread is the best in our e my own opinion with meaning and tell the world about it.

We can say that the fifth and main goal of this work has been achieved. We have found the reflection of the model of existentialism in life and through this T expression, as well as through theorization and concretization of the positions of existential n socialism understood the concept of "existence" more fully.
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existentialia - ways of human existence, categories of human existence;
in Heidegger, this is primarily fear, then being-in-the-world, care, understanding, mood, abandonment.

Existentialism - existence, or the philosophy of existence, - a direction in the philosophy of irrationalism, which arose in the beginning. 20th century in Russia, Germany, France and other countries.
We need to distinguish three forms of existentialism:
1) Heidegger's existential ontology ("Sein und Zeit", 1927), whose main question is about the meaning of being;
2) the existential insight of K. Jaspers (“Philosophie”, 1932), who rejects the question of the meaning of being as unresolvable and focuses on understanding the mode of being of human existence and its relation to (divine) transcendence;
3) the existentialism of J.P. Sartre, who first introduced this name as a term ("L "Etre et le neant", 1943). His philosophy is an independent transformation of Heidegger's views into a kind of subjectivist metaphysics.

Starting point of existentialism is the philosophy of Kierkegaard, which (as a protest against Hegelian panlogism) liberates a person from any integrity (human organizations, the world of ideas, concepts) that determines his life and gravitates over him, and places him in the face of the same isolated God before whom he appears "with fear and trembling."

Existentialism arose on the eve of the First World War in Russia (Shestov, Berdyaev), after the First World War in Germany (Heidegger, Jaspers, Buber): the concept of existentialism was first introduced by K. Jaspers (“Die geistige Situation der Zeit”, 1931), most clearly expressed by Martin Heidegger.
The philosophical atmosphere of the period in which existentialism arose is characterized by the receding into the background of methodological-theoretical-cognitive problems (Dilthey), the appeal to the object (Husserl), the revival of metaphysics (N. Hartmann) and the idea of ​​philosophical anthropology (Scheler).
During the Second World War, existentialism moved to France, where it is represented by Ch. O. Jean Paul Sartre and Gabriel Marcel.
The loneliness of man in the face of God, recognized by Kierkegaard (see Dialectical Theology), has turned in existentialism into the loneliness of man in the face of nothingness; from here arises the main. a state of fear, which alone can open being to a person, lead him to independent being and to freedom. Therefore, this fear must be consciously taken on and endured (see Resolve).

existential thinking- this is such thinking, in which, as needed, the whole physical-spiritual-spiritual person participates, together with all his feelings and desires, with his premonitions and fears, his experience and hopes, his worries and needs. Only such a "thinker" (see Installation) reveals the truth that is essential in things.
Reason by its nature is blind to values, it has historically developed as such, and values ​​are precisely what makes things cognizable givens and sets life in motion.
Existentialism is an attempt to give a picture of the original existential thinking and present its results.

Main the principle of human existence is to be-in-the-world, and the "world" is the labor world, the world of things that are the subject of concern, the totality of tools, and "to be" means the same as "to be-with", "live-with "," to be initiated into. Being-in-the-world is the existentiality of existence, but, in addition, it is also the transcendence (according to Heidegger, going beyond) of existence into this world, hence the remaining immanent transcendence.
Existence- "goes out into the world." Thanks to the main the principle of existence is removed from the opposition of subject and object (see Cognition); only theoretically isolated "consciousness" becomes a secondary source of this opposition.
These discoveries are generally the most remarkable conclusions of existentialism, which are rich in consequences.

Phenomenology has already turned consciousness into a non-psychic given, simply into the starting point of intentionality (see Intention).
According to existentialism, the intentionality of existence is rooted in the transcendence of existence, in its being-with-the-world. Consequently, not only the concept of consciousness is overcome, but also the being-outside-the-world of the subject, the detachment of the subject from the world.

According to existentialism, the world is the same as the shared world; "others" always already exist together with me, and they do not need to be known beforehand; existence is being together (see also Communication).
Existence is “always mine”, it is my possession and my burden, it is abandoned in its “here”, constant-being-in-the-world, it is characterized by abandonment (see also Facticity, Historicity); it is needed exactly as it is.

Existence has the possibility, and at the same time the freedom, to assimilate facticity to itself and, thanks to the understanding comprehension of this freedom, to become a “genuine” existence, or else close its eyes to this facticity and not find itself.

True existence is existence as existence.
It is always about its own possibility of being, it is directed to the future and constantly repelled from the present;
the characteristic of being is to be-aspiring-forward; this is existentiality in the true sense.

Facticity, taking responsibility for one's own existence, is revealed to each person through the state of existence and understanding; main state - fear, osn. the structure of existence itself is concern, "being-with" is concern, being together with others is a common concern.

The inevitable moments of existence are usually hidden behind the chatter of the impersonal Man (see also Oblivion), thanks to Man, death is also underestimated, this borderline situation, while it provides the only opportunity for existence to understand itself as a whole, as complete and unchanging.

To put-oneself-in-the-face-of-death is an unconscious, long-term act of an existing person, to be-aspiring-forward, in essence, means “looking into death”, by which existence is revealed as a being going to death.
In death, the existence that becomes wholeness comes to itself, it is the future, from which also temporality follows, as well as the historicity and finite character of existence.

According to Jaspers, the all-being also contributes to true independent being (see Cognition), connecting it with transcendence, which is revealed through a cipher.
Main the difference between Heidegger and Jaspers is that Jaspers appeals to people to take care of true existence, while Heidegger, starting from existence, seeks to discover being and discover its meaning.
Heidegger's existentialism is, in essence, a fundamental ontology.
Sartre's understanding of the consciousness of others (people), freedom, nothingness and death differs sharply from the understanding of both of them. philosophers;
new in French existentialism is the concept of existential psychoanalysis and insincerity (mauvaise foi).
The existentialism of Marcel is Christian, close to the existentialism of Jaspers.

Existentialism is a harsh and sober philosophy; at the center of his research is a man who, thanks to the experience of two world wars, has become realistic, hostile to ideology; a person whose strength is only enough to exist, and pursuing a single goal - externally and internally to cope with the burden of his fate.
As existentialists, writers also act; this is primarily R. M. Rilke in his later works. and Franz Kafka in their novels The Trial (1915) and The Castle (1922).

EXISTENTIALISM (from late Latin exsistentia - existence), or the philosophy of existence, irrationalistic. direction of modern bourgeois philosophy that arose on the eve of the First World War of 1914-18 in Russia (L. Shestov, N. A. Berdyaev), after the First World War in Germany (M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, M. Buber) and during 2nd World War 1939-45 in France (J. P. Sartre, G. Marcel, M. Merleau-Ponty, A. Camus, S. de Beauvoir). In the 40-50s.

E. has become widespread in other European countries. countries; in the 60s. also in the USA. Representatives of this direction in Italy - E. Castelli, H. Abbagnano, E. Paci; in Spain, X. Ortega y Gaset was close to him; In the USA, the ideas of E. are popularized by W. Lowry, W. Barrett, and J. Edie. Religious philosophers are close to E. directions: French personalism (E. Munier, M. Nedonsel, J. Lacroix) and dialectical theology (K. Barth, P. Tillich, P. Bultman).

Existentialists consider B. Pascal, S. Kierkegaard, M. de Unamuno, F. M. Dostoevsky and F. Nietzsche to be their predecessors. E. was influenced by the philosophy of life and the phenomenology of E. Husserl.

E. seeks to comprehend being as a kind of immediate. undivided integrity of subject and object. Having singled out the experience itself as the original and true being, E. understands it as the experience of the subject of his "being-in-the-world." Being is interpreted as given directly, as human existence, or existence (which, according to E., is unknowable either by scientific or even philosophical means). To describe its structure MH. representatives of E. (Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty) resort to phenomenological. Husserl's method, singling out as a structure of consciousness its focus on something else - intentionality. Existence is "open", it is directed to the other, which becomes its center of attraction. According to Heidegger and Sartre, existence is being directed towards nothingness and conscious of its finiteness. Therefore, Heidegger's description of the structure of existence is reduced to a description of a number of modes of human existence: care, fear, determination, conscience, etc., which are determined through death and are different ways of contact with nothingness, movement towards it, running away from it, etc. Therefore, it is precisely in the "boundary situation" (Jaspers), in moments of the deepest upheavals, that a person sees existence as the root of his being. Defining existence through its finiteness, E. interprets the latter as temporality, the starting point of which is death. Unlike the physical time - a pure quantity, an infinite series of flowing moments, existential time is qualitative, finite and unique; it acts as a fate (Heidegger, Jaspers) and is inseparable from what constitutes the essence of existence: birth, love, repentance, death, etc. Existentialists emphasize the decisive significance of the future in the phenomenon of time and consider it in connection with such existentials as " determination”, “project”, “hope”, thus marking the personal-historical (and not impersonal-cosmic) nature of time and affirming its connection with human activity, searching, tension, expectation. The historicity of human existence is expressed, according to E., in the fact that it always finds itself in a certain situation, in which it is "abandoned" and has to be reckoned with. Belonging to a certain people, estate, the presence of certain biological, psychological. and other qualities, all this is empirical. an expression of the originally situational nature of existence, that it is "being-in-the-world". Temporality, historicity and situationality of existence are the modes of its finiteness. Dr. The most important definition of existence is transcendence, i.e. e. going beyond your limits. Depending on the understanding of the transcendental and the very act of transcendence, the form of philosophizing among the representatives of E. "hint" at him, then the teachings of Sartre and Camus, who set themselves the task of revealing the illusory nature of transcendence, are critical. character. E. rejects as rationalistic. the educational tradition, which reduces freedom to the knowledge of necessity, and the humanistic-naturalistic tradition, for which freedom consists in revealing the natural inclinations of a person, liberating his "essential" forces. Freedom, according to E., is existence itself, existence is freedom. Since the structure of existence is expressed in "directed-to", in transcendence, the understanding of freedom various representatives E. is determined by their interpretation of transcendence. For Marcel and Jaspers, this means that freedom can only be found in God. Since, according to Sartre, to be free means to be oneself, insofar as "man is doomed to be free." Freedom appears in E. as a heavy burden, which a person must bear, since he is a person. He can give up his freedom, stop being himself, become "like everyone else", but only at the cost of giving up himself as a person. The world in which a person is immersed at the same time is called "man" by Heidegger: it is an impersonal world, in which everything is anonymous, in which there are no subjects of action, but only objects of action, in which everything " others" and man, even in relation to himself, is "other"; this is a world in which no one decides anything, and therefore does not bear responsibility for anything. For Berdyaev, this world is called the "world of objectification", the signs of which are: "... 1) the alienation of the object from the subject; 2) the absorption of the uniquely individual, the personal by the general, the impersonally universal; 3) the dominance of necessity, determination from the outside, suppression and the closure of freedom, 4) adaptation to the massiveness of the world and history, to the average person, the socialization of a person and his opinions, destroying originality" ("Experience in Eschatological Metaphysics", Paris, 1949, p. 63). The communication of individuals carried out in the sphere of objectification is not genuine, it only emphasizes the loneliness of each. According to Camus, in the face of nothing, which makes human life meaningless, absurd, the breakthrough of one individual to another, true communication between them is impossible. Both Sartre and Camus see falsehood and hypocrisy in all forms of communication between individuals, consecrated by traditions. religion and morality: in love, friendship, etc. Sartre’s characteristic thirst to expose distorted, transformed forms of consciousness (“bad faith”) turns, in essence, into a demand to accept the reality of consciousness that is disconnected from others and from itself. Unity, a way of genuine communication, which Camus recognizes, is the unity of individuals in rebellion against the "absurd" world, against finiteness, mortality, imperfection, the meaninglessness of human existence. Ecstasy can unite a person with another, but this is, in essence, the ecstasy of destruction, rebellion, born of the despair of an "absurd" person. Marcel gives a different solution to the problem of communication. According to him, the disunity of individuals is generated by the fact that objective being is taken as the only possible being. But true being - transcendence - is not objective, but personal, therefore the true relationship to being is a dialogue. Being, according to Marcel, is not "It", but "You". Therefore, the prototype of a person's relationship to being is a personal relationship to another person, carried out in the face of God. Transcending is an act by which a person goes beyond his closed, egoistic. "I". Love is transcending, breaking through to the other, be it human or divine; and since such a breakthrough cannot be understood with the help of reason, Marcel refers it to the sphere of "mystery". The breakthrough of the objectified world, the world of "man", is, according to E., not only genuine human communication, but also the sphere of artistic philosophy. creativity. However, true communication, like creativity, carries a tragic element. fracture: the world of objectivity constantly threatens to destroy existential communication. Consciousness of this leads Jaspers to the assertion that everything in the world eventually collapses due to the very finiteness of existence, and therefore a person must learn to live and love with a constant awareness of the fragility and finiteness of everything that he loves, the insecurity of love itself. But the deeply hidden pain caused by this consciousness gives its attachment a special purity and spirituality. In Berdyaev, the consciousness of the fragility of any true being takes shape in an eschatological. teaching (see Eschatology). A mood of dissatisfaction, seeking, denying, and overcoming what has been achieved predominates in E. Tragic. intonation and general pessimistic. coloring E. are evidence of the crisis state of modern. bourgeois society, the extreme forms of alienation prevailing in it; therefore the philosophy of E. can be called the philosophy of crisis. Socio-political. the positions of different representatives of E. are heterogeneous. So, Sartre and Camus participated in the Resistance Movement; with con. 60s Sartre's position is characterized by extreme left radicalism and extremism. The concepts of Sartre and Camus had known influence on the socio-political program of the New Left movement. The political orientation of Jaspers and Marcel is liberal in nature, and the socio-political. The views of Heidegger, who at one time collaborated with Nazism, are characterized by a pronounced conservative tendency. E. reflected the spiritual situation of the bourgeoisie. society, exposed its contradictions and illnesses, but he could not offer a way out of this situation. The ideas and motives of E. have spread in modern. Western European, Amer. and Japanese. lit-re; they were reflected not only in the arts, production. the existentialist philosophers themselves (Sartre, Camus, Marcel, de Beauvoir), but also in the works of A. Malraux, J. Anouilh, E. Hemingway, H. Mailer, J. Baldwin, A. Murdoch, W. Golding, Kobo Abe and others