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The works of the largest historian-orientalist - Akdes Nimet Kurat are considered. His developments devoted to the past of the medieval Turkic states and the Ottoman Empire, Turkey's relations with Western countries and Russia entered the golden fund of historical science. A. N. Kurat passed on the results of his many years of research to numerous students for a long time. A list of his works is presented. One of the works, which is a fundamental study of rare sources on the history of the medieval Turkic-Tatar states, which is stored in the palace of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul - “Labels and bitiki of the khans of the Golden Horde, Crimea and Turkestan in the archive of the Topkapi Palace Museum” is characterized. We also learn that A.N. Kurat made a huge contribution to the study of the funds of the Topkapi archive, introduced into scientific circulation the most valuable materials on the history of the Crimean Khanate - in particular, letters from the Crimean khans to the Ottoman sultans, messages from the Crimean beys and murzas. Key words: A. N. Kurat, Topkapi archive, Crimean Khanate. The most fundamental studies of the Crimean sources in the archives of the Topkapi Palace-Museum unfolded by the middle of the 20th century. Some of the earliest are written by the Turkish historian Akdes Nimet Kurat. The scientist was born in 1903 in the small Tatar village of Berket-Klyuch (now a village in the Cheremshansky district of Tatarstan). He was a representative of an ancient dynasty of Muslim clerics, descended from the Golden Horde Murzas, the great-grandson of the talented and authoritative theologian Nigmatullah bin Khabibullah, the son of Jadid Mullah Tahir Shahmurat. After graduating from elementary school, Nimet's father sent him and his brother to a Russian high school in the province of Bugulma. The boys lived in the house of a relative, the historian Khadi Atlasi. Nimet was very hardworking: a year later he passed the exams and was enrolled in a Russian non-classical secondary school. Mathematics, physics, history, geography, German and French were studied here. Nimet was one of the best students in his class. On August 7, 1922, having received a blessing from his parents, Nimet left Berket to continue his studies in Germany. This was the last time he saw his parents and relatives. Without a penny in his pocket, the guy moved to Chally, then to Kazan, then to Moscow and Petrograd. At first, he tried to cross the border into Latvia illegally, as he did not have a passport, because of which he spent a month in prison. Later, he tried to cross the border into Lithuania, but also failed. For the third time, the future historian reached Poland and was again sent to prison. After Akdes was released, he spent several months on the streets of Poland. Eventually, Nimet was hired by a wealthy Polish farmer and worked for him for a year and a half. He decided not to waste time and learn Polish. Unable to travel to Germany, the future historian turned to the Turkish consul in Warsaw with a request to issue him a passport and send him to Turkey. Having received a positive answer, Nimet went to Istanbul in November 1924. Here he established contact with the Tatar intelligentsia, in particular, with Yusuf Akchura and Sadri Maksudi. The future historian devoted all his free time to reading books and studying the Turkish language. In Istanbul, Nimet applied to the director and professor of the newly established Turkological Institute, Fuat Kopürl, with a request to give him a position. Nimet's knowledge of Polish, Russian, German languages interested Fuat Kopyurlu. On August 25, 1925, Akdes began working as an assistant at the Turkological Institute of Istanbul University. In the same year he entered the Faculty of History. In 1929-1933, his dream came true - the historian went to study in Germany. In 1933, he defended his thesis on the history of Byzantium and received a Ph.D. in historical sciences. After returning to Turkey in 1933, the scientist continued his work at the University of Istanbul. At this time, Nimet devoted himself entirely to scientific research. He wrote new books and published articles. Nimet decided to take a new surname - "Kurat". In translation, it meant "build, create", which fully reflected his diligence. However, after some time, due to personal conflicts, Nimet decided to leave the university and move to Sweden, where he had previously been. Here he received a professorship at the University of Uppsala. In addition to lecturing, Kurat studied materials for his new books in the university library, worked in the archives of Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna and Paris. Subsequently, the work became the reason for his return to Turkey. Here he again met with those who envied his success. Thanks to their efforts, a man who received a doctorate in Germany, lectured in Sweden, worked in European archives, was sent to the small town of Denizli to teach history at a school. But Kurat never gave up. The researcher devoted his time to systematizing the materials collected in the archives. In 1939, the researcher moved to Ankara and worked as a school history teacher. Later he was sent to study Russian at the Faculty of Language, History and Geography of Ankara University. In 1940, the researcher became an assistant professor and began working as an assistant professor of history. And finally, in 1943, having overcome all the difficulties in his path, Akdes Nimet Kurat became a professor. The scientist wrote many books and articles, worked in the archives of various countries (Europe and the USA), maintained contacts with many outstanding scientists, and took part in numerous conferences. Kurat learned many languages in order to be able to read archival documents in the original. He knew well Russian, Polish, German, Turkish, English, Swedish, French, and had knowledge in many areas of history. The scientist wrote nineteen books and more than seventy articles. In 1953–1955 he was appointed Dean of the Faculty of Language, History and Geography of Ankara University. Akdes Nimet Kurat has gained immense popularity in Turkey. His lectures were attended by both scientists and ordinary people. On August 28, 1971, Kurat was heading from Ankara to Istanbul, but his bus collided with a car. Akdes was seriously injured and died ten days later, on September 8, 1971. After saying goodbye at Istanbul University, Kurat was buried in the Arkanay cemetery. Some works of Akdes Nimet Kurat: Die türkische prosographie bei Leonikas Chalcocondilas (Hamburg, 1933). Çaka Bey: İzmir ve Civarındaki Adaların ilk Türk Beyi (M.S. 1081 – 1096) (İstanbul, 1936, 1945, 1966). Pecenek Tarihi (İstanbul 1937). Kazan Hanlığını Kuran Uluğ Muhammed Hanın Yarlığı (İstanbul, 1937). Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Arşivindeki Altınordu, Kırım ve Türkistan Hanlarına Ait Yarlık ve Bitikleri (İstanbul, 1940). İsveç Kralı Kari XII m Hayatı ve Faaliyeti (İstanbul, 1940). İsveç Kral Karl XII m Türkiye "de Kalışı ve Bu Sıralarda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu (İstanbul, 1943). Rusya Tarihi. Başlangıcından 1911"ye Kadar (Ankara, 1948, 1999). Prut Seferi ve Barışı, I-II (Ankara, 1951, 1953). Türk-İngiliz Münasebetlerinin Başlangıcı ve Gelişmesi (1553–1610) (Ankara, 1953). The Despatches of Sir Robert Sutton. Ambassador in Constantinople 1710–1714 (Londra, 1953). Türk Amerikan Münasebetlerine Kısa Bir Bakış (1800–1959) (Ankara, 1959). Başkan Lyndon B. Jonson ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Cumhurbaş- kanlığı (Ankara, 1964). Türkiye ve İdil Boyu. 1569 Astrahan Seferi, Ten-İdil Kanalı ve XVI–XVIII. Yüzyıl Osmanlı-Rus Münasebetleri (Ankara, 1966). Türkiye ve Rusya: XVIII. Yüzyıl Sonundan Kurtuluş Savaşma Kadar Türk-Rus İlişkileri (1798–1919) (Ankara, 1970). IV-XVIII. Yüzyıllarda Karadeniz Kuzeyindeki Türk Kavimleri ve Devletleri (Ankara, 1972). In the study “Topkapı Saray Müzesi Arşivindeki Altın ordu, Kırım ve Türkistan hanlarına ait yarlık ve bitikler”, he singled out documents on the history of the Golden Horde, Crimea and Turkestan from the archive of the Topkapı Palace Museum. His works devoted to the past of the medieval Turkic states and the Ottoman Empire, Turkey's relations with Western countries and Russia entered the golden fund of historical science. For a long time, Kurat passed on the results of many years of research to numerous students. The book “Labels and bitiki of the Khans of the Golden Horde, Crimea and Turkestan in the archives of the Topkapi Palace Museum” is a fundamental study characterizing rare sources on the history of medieval Turkic-Tatar states, stored in the palace of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul. The book consists of three parts: 1) letters sent by the Golden Horde khans to the rulers of the Ottoman Empire; 2) letters sent by the Crimean khans and nobles; 3) letters from the khans of Turkestan. In the second part that interests us, the author reviewed nine documents. Among them is one of the oldest original documents preserved in the archives of the Palace-Museum - a tarkhan label of the first Crimean Khan Hadji-Gerai, granted to Hekim Yahya from Ankara . In the work, he also cited three letters from Mengli-Gerai. The first of them is addressed to Sultan Fatih Mehmed. The author believed that it was written in the literary language of the Golden Horde, like the label of Haji Giray, but with more Arabic words. A. N. Kurat refers the message to the period before the vassal dependence of the Crimea on the Ottoman Empire, dates it to 874 Hijri (1469). The next historian considered the letter of Mengli-Gerai, written five or six weeks after the capture of Kafa by the Ottomans. The vizier Gedik Ahmed Pasha is presumably named as the addressee. In the letter, Mengli-Gerai speaks of his desire to be the ruler “a friend to friends and an enemy to enemies”, as well as the positive influence of Islam after the capture of the city. Dated to AH 880 (1475). The third letter is addressed to Sultan Fatih Mehmed and is dated 881 AH (1475/1476). Its content makes it possible to judge the first steps of the Ottoman power in the peninsula. The message testifies to the strengthening of Turkish influence on the Crimea. A. N. Kurat also cited two appeals of Eminek Murza to Sultan Fatih Mehmet. The first letter is connected with the Sultan's campaigns against the Moldavian lands. Here Murza explained the reason for the inability to provide proper assistance in them. The document is dated 881 AH (1476) . From the second letter of Eminek dated 883 Hijri (1478), we learn that the beys and murzas do not obey the ruling khan Nur-Devlet, in connection with this he asked to send Mengli-Gerai to the throne, which, according to him, could restore order. Each document is reviewed in the following order: first, a facsimile of the original letter is given, then the printed text in Old Ottoman, followed by the Latin transcription of the text. Further, the author presented a decoding of the meanings of complex or controversial words, taking into account the amendments of the predecessors: I. N. Berezin, V. V. Velyaminov-Zernov, Khusain Faizkhan. The biography of the last scientist is the least developed. Khusain Faizkhan (1828–1866) – Tatar scholar, educator, student of Marjani. At first, he studied in his native village Sabachay (Dog Island) of the Kurmysh district of the Simbirsk province. Then he went to Kazan, where he studied at the II Kazan Madrasah, then at the VI Madrasah. In 1850 he switched to study with Marjani, although it was short-lived (only four years). With the help of Marjani, Faizkhanov established creative contacts with A.K. Kazembek and I.N. Berezin, professors at Kazan University. In 1853-1854 he went to St. Petersburg, where he taught oriental languages at St. Petersburg University. Faizkhanov's activities are not limited to pedagogy. His contribution to Oriental studies has not yet been fully explored. Only one monograph by Faizkhanov was published - “A Brief Grammar of the Tatar Language”, published in 1862. The knowledge of the languages of the scientist was used by St. Petersburg orientalists, such as V. V. Velyaminov-Zernov, D. A. Khvolson and others. He died at the age of 38 in the Simbirsk province. The author pays special attention to the names found in letters and labels. He also gives a description and decoding of the seals. Thus, A.N. Kurat made a huge contribution to the study of the funds of the Topkapi archive, introduced into scientific circulation the most valuable materials on the history of the Crimean Khanate - in particular, the correspondence of the Crimean khans with the Ottoman sultans, messages of the Crimean beys and murzas. List of used sources and literature 1. Akder Necati. Profesor Akdes Nimet Kurat "ın Ardından: Hatıralar ve Düşünceler // Türk Kültürü. - 1971. - No. 108 (Ekim). - S. 913–927. 2. Turan Osman. Bir Alim ve İdealistin Kaybı // Belgelerle Turk Tarihi Dergisi. - 1971. - No. 48 (EYLUL). - S. 30–33. 3. Baştav şerif. Kazan Turklerinden Prof. Dr. Akdes nimet Kurat // Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Devletin Kurulişmesine Hizmeti Gesen T URK dunyası aydınları sempozyumu bildirleri: 23–26 Mayis 1996. Haz. Abdulkadir YuvalI vb. Kayseri: Erciyes Universitesi Yay, 1996. - S. 119–126. 4. Shərəfetdinov F. Һiҗrəttəge boek milləttəshebez // Gasyrlar avaza − Ekho vekov, 2002. – No. 3/4. – C. 167–171. 5. Shahin L. Tatar scholars in exile: Kurat Akdes // Tatarica: Personalia. - Kazan, 2014. - No. 1. - P. 247– 251. 7. Kurat A. N. Topkapı Saray Müzesi Arşivindeki Altın ordu, Kırım ve Türkistan hanlarına ait yarlık ve bitikler / A. N. Kurat. - Istanbul, 1940. - Dil ve tarih - coğrafiya fakültesi yayinlarindan. Tarih serisi 1. - 212 s. 7. Ibid. – S. 61–81. 8. Ibid. – S. 84–86. 9. Ibid. – S. 87–90. 10. Ibid. – S. 91–100. 11. Ibid. – S. 101–107. 12. Ibid. – S. 107– 115. 13. See for more details: Nepomnyashchiy A.A. Devotees of Crimean studies / A.A. Nepomnyashchiy. - Vol. 2: TAURICA ORIENTALIA / Rep. Committee of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea for the protection of cultural heritage. - Simferopol, 2008. - P. 90-100 - (Series: "Biobibliography of Crimean Studies"; issue 12). sm. podrobnee: Nepomnyashiy A. A. Podvijniki krimovedeniya / A. A. Nepomnyashiy. – Vol. 2: TAURICA ORIENTALIA / Resp. komitet ARK po ohrane kulturnogo naslediya.– Simferopol, 2008.–S. 90–100. – (Seriya “Bibliografiya krimovedeniya”; vyp. 12). 14. Marjani's essays on the Eastern peoples / transl. A.N. Yuzeev. - Kazan: Tatars. book. publishing house, 2003. - 175 p. Ocherki Mardjani o vostochnih narodah / per. A.N. Yuzeeva. Kazan: Tatar. kn.i zd-vo, 2003. - 175 p. Seyt-Mametov Sh. E. Akdes Nimet Kurat – researcher of the sourses on the history of the Crimean Khanate in the Ottoman arcives / Sh. E. Seyt-Mametov // Scientific Notes of Taurida V. I. Vernadsky National University. Series: Historical Science. - 2014. - Vol. 27 (66), No 1. – P. 67–72. The Palace Museum Topkapı (Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi) – public institution subordinate to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. In the second half of XV – first half of XIX century it was SEIT-MAMETOV Sh. E.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES OF THE TAURIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Issue N 6 (45)
EXPERTOLOGY
Pozachenyuk E. A., Candidate of Geographical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Geoecology
To the begining | Previous issue | next issueTable of contents | Previous article | Next article
At present, a somewhat paradoxical situation is emerging: expertise is becoming the norm of society and a prestigious form of activity. Nevertheless, the theory of examinations has not yet been formed. The need for the formation of a new science of expertology was noted by P.K. Kosmachev
. The active introduction of expert activity has been going on since the second half of the 20th century, when quite complex tasks arose in the development of the nature-society system related to the awareness of the presence of a block of uncertainty in the development of nonlinear systems and a number of their properties, in particular, the fuzziness property. Understanding this requires several different approaches to solving the problems of natural and economic systems. This well reflects the principle of incompatibility of L. A. Zadeh: the high accuracy of the study is not compatible with the great complexity of the object of study. It follows from this that in geographic systems the value and possibilities of rigorous research methods are relatively limited, and methods that are not formalized and poorly formalized come to the fore. Problems of this kind began to be solved using the expert method of research. Expertise in general terms is understood as the study and resolution, with the help of knowledgeable people, of any issue that requires special knowledge (dictionary of foreign words, 1954, p. 799). The term expertise comes from the Latin. expertus (French expertise) - experienced. The basis of the method of expert assessments was laid by the Delphic oracles (priests of the temple of Apollo at the foot of the city of Parnassus in Greece), which made the prediction public after all members of the council were acquainted with the circumstances of the case and after a thorough discussion at the council of the Delphic wise men. When making decisions, they used a system of rules, which, for example, included: “It is good to observe the measure in everything”, “Nothing too much”, “Know thyself”, “Think everything in advance”, etc. Currently, the method of collective discussion and agreement various opinions was called the Delphi method. The development of the expert method proceeded from below from the needs of practice. A large number of types, classes and types of examinations and about 300 methods of expert assessments have appeared. At the same time, there is a lag in the general theory and methodology of the expert method of research: first of all, scientifically based terminology, classification, identification of general concepts and principles of research. Taking into account modern data, the concept of "expertise" should be defined as a method of research and resolution of problem situations by major specialists with special knowledge, by choosing the most reasoned solutions. The expert method of research is used in cases where:
1) on the basis of known laws, it is impossible to predict the behavior of the system in the future;
2) when it is impossible to experimentally verify the proposed course of the process;
3) in the presence of uncertain factors that cannot be controlled;
4) if there are multiple ways to solve the problem;
5) if the information on the basis of which the decision is made is incomplete. When forming expert decisions, formalized research methods are already used. Based on the provisions of the theory of operations
and following the logic of S. N. Sarkhisyan et al.
, we propose, when considering complex systems that require expert solutions, to distinguish three types of factors that determine their functioning and development:
1) deterministic factors that can be determined on the basis of strict deterministic dependencies. In geography, these include zonal patterns; indicators determined through balance equations; regional patterns such as microzoning, positioning, hydromorphic zonality, etc.;
2) stochastic factors, which are described by random variables with a known distribution law: climatic and demographic indicators, biomass production, sea waves, etc.;
3) uncertain factors, for each of which only the range of possible values is known. Uncertainty is a systemic property, implying the impossibility of an exhaustive display of complex natural and natural-social systems. Taking into account these factors, the expert task is formulated as follows: for given values of deterministic factors A1...., Ai..., Ap, probabilistic factors with a known distribution B1...., Bi..., Bn and taking into account uncertain factors X1..., Xi..., Xk, find the optimal value of Y1..., Ui..., Mm from the area Qy..., Qyi..., Qm. Similar tasks containing three blocks, which are determined by different conditions, with the indispensable presence of an indefinite block, are the objects of the expert research method (Fig. 1). Three types of information correspond to the three-block structure of expertise:
1) information confirmed by experiments or statistical observations (empirical facts);
2) information supported by a small amount of evidence, based on knowledge of the existing situation (information in the form of hypotheses);
3) information based on single facts, opinions (information in the form of assumptions). These three types of information, as well as the structure of expertise, form a triad: law-hypothesis-assumption. At present, it can be confidently asserted that the expert method of research is actively developing. In accordance with the structure of methods of scientific knowledge, the expert method can be classified as general scientific (Fig. 2), along with such methods as comparative, historical, geographical, mathematical, systemic, ecological, etc. The expert method is increasingly used in scientific research and production activity, and with the deepening of our understanding of the real world, its role will increase.
Fig.1. The structure of the expert research method
Fig.2. The place of the expert method in the system of methods of cognition
Recognizing the examination by the scientific method, and taking into account the connection of examinations with certain aspects of human activity, it can be argued that the number of their types will correspond to the number of scientific areas. An approximate justification for such a classification is shown in Table 1, where five directions are identified, which, in accordance with the basis of division, are ranked into species. Let's take a closer look at the classifications. 1) Depending on the level of organization, they are: interstate, state, public, departmental, and in accordance with the level of elaboration they are divided into primary and secondary. The latter are carried out when shortcomings are indicated in the primary examination that require revision and submission for re-examination, or are repeated at the request of the customer, etc. According to the form of examination, there can be permanent and temporary. 2) Expertise most often acts as a type of state activity, or a method of decision-making, and more recently - as Scientific research subject of study of expertology. 3) Depending on the object being examined, most researchers distinguish between the examination of a project and the examination of a real object. There are many objects of expertise. Their classification can go in the direction of developing the classification of all kinds of systems: natural-economic, technical, informational (science, culture, jurisprudence, etc.), social, etc. (see table). In addition, the objects of expertise are materials and substances, etc., as well as projects of objects. 4) Expertise can be classified depending on the worldview levels of reflection of the existing reality (reflection). At the most general level, based on a comprehensive system of knowledge that reflects the integrity of the world - the universe, Yu. M. Fedorov a subdivision of expertise into noological, humanitarian, societal and natural-historical ones is proposed. Each group of examinations is based on a certain form of reflection of the universe. Noological expertise is based on transcendental reflection, an eneological hypothesis. Experts in noological expertise are people with supersensible perception, understanding of a holistic picture of the world. Humanitarian reflection forms the basis of humanitarian expertise, the task of which is to determine how much the conditions of the phenomenon under consideration (project, real situation, development prospects, etc.) contribute to the preservation and creation of values that support, rather than destroy, the organic proportionality of man and the world . Humanitarian expertise is the application of "human standards" to social, economic, political, environmental and other phenomena that contribute to the development of the human universe or restrain it. Within the framework of this examination, all structures are evaluated only from the point of view of how much they correspond to the ideal of a comprehensive, harmonious, universal development of a person. The integrity of the human universe is fixed as ideas about the system of values. Humanitarian expertise is based on the use of a valuable form of knowledge, the bearer of which, to one degree or another, is any person who embodies the so-called "personal knowledge". It is most concentrated in the figures of culture and art. Representatives of humanitarian expertise see a way out of crisis situations in the restructuring of society in accordance with the priority of universal human values. Societal expertise (political, sociological, economic, legal, etc.) is based on various types of societal reflection. The experts are politicians, economists, lawyers, i.е. specialists in the field of management of various processes and spheres of public life. This expertise is based on normative forms of knowledge that allow protecting the integrity of society from destructive influences from the "human factor", so the conclusions are formulated in a repressive form. The panacea for all troubles is seen there in the creation of a market for goods and labor. Societal types of expertise proceed from the priority of the interests of society over the interests of man and the Cosmos, which are considered only as a partial individual and an element of nature. Natural scientific expertise reflects the appropriate form of knowledge (exact and natural sciences), objectified knowledge. Experts are scientists, engineers - specialists in specific fields of science. At the same time, it is necessary that natural science expertise take into account the main priorities of expertise of higher levels of reflection. Natural science expertise includes: hydrological, meteorological, geological, geographical, geoecological, biological (environmental), biomedical, technical, engineering and construction, etc. The classification of expertise can take place taking into account disciplinary or interdisciplinary knowledge, which is the basis for the implementation of the expertise . They can be monodisciplinary (singular) or interdisciplinary (polysystemic). The term "singular expertise" belongs to V. L. Gorelov and others. , i.e. single simple examinations carried out at the level of knowledge of one science. When the examination is based on a system of sciences, it is called complex or interdisciplinary (polysystemic). An example of interdisciplinary expertise is an environmental-socio-economic or environmental-socio-geographical expertise. 5) According to the function of the examination, we will subdivide into monofunctional and polyfunctional. We refer to monofunctional ones: control, evaluation, diagnostic, prognostic, conflict. In practice, expertise is most often multifunctional. Depending on the goal set, examinations can have the most diverse combination of functions, for example, evaluative-control, diagnostic-predictive, conflict-diagnostic-predictive, control-conflict, etc.
Table
Directions for the development of the classification of examinations
Classification directions | Basis of classification | Examples of classification categories |
|
Organizational | organization level | interstate |
|
level of development | primary |
||
permanent |
|||
active | Kind of activity | type of state activity |
|
object | real objects of natural, economic and social systems | natural and economic |
|
materials, substances, etc. | physical |
||
projects and programs for the development of natural, economic and social systems | all types of natural, economic and social systems, documentation on the creation of new equipment, technologies, materials, substances, etc. |
||
Worldview levels of reflection | reflection form | noological: |
|
reflection level | monodisciplinary |
||
functional | the main task performed by expert research | monofunctional: |
a) the uncertainty of the nature of the object;
b) the uncertainty of the "enemy" (a person always exists in conditions under which the results of his decisions are not strictly unambiguous, they depend on partners, opponents, whose actions cannot be fully foreseen or taken into account);
c) the uncertainty of desires, goals (there are always several goals for the researcher to achieve results that can come at the expense of each other). The conflict must be considered as a way of interaction of complex systems, a way of their self-development, reaching a new meta level. Therefore, the purpose of the examination is to resolve the conflict situation, through reaching a new holistic vision of the object with the highest range of interests. To find a solution that meets the requirement of consensus between all interested parties involved in the situation, one must strive not to ensure that the conflicting parties give up their points of view in favor of one of them, and not even to convince each conflicting party to give up a little their own interests for the common good. It is necessary that the conflicting parties reach the meta level, find in it the grounds that unite them. It can be the highest interests of the region, country, society, universal, space. Can consensus always be expressed as an unambiguous and one-sided result? Hardly. Here, in a number of cases, the "eastern" way of thinking is applicable: moving around the conflict object in narrowing concentric circles, forming a multidimensional impression based on observing the object from different points. The "Eastern Way" gives a result that is perhaps less unambiguous, less logically rigorous, but allows one to take into account various nuances. Functional types of expertise are largely based on the theory of forecasts, the theory of estimates, the theory of diagnosis, the theory of conflict resolution and fuzzy sets. The above, some aspects of the terminological apparatus, the block structure of the expert method of research, the directions for the development of the classification of expertise and the general requirements for expert activities can be the basis for the creation of a general theory of expertise or expertology, as an interdisciplinary direction in the development of science aimed at solving a class of complex problems, having a block of uncertainty.
Literature.
1. Kosmachev K. P. Geographical expertise. (Methodological aspects). Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1981. - 107 p. Beshelev S. D., Gurvich F. G. Expert assessments. - M.: Nauka, 1973. - P. 157. 2. Wentzel E. S. Operations research. - M.: Soviet radio, 1972. - 551 p. 3. Sarkisyan S. A., Lisichkin V. A., Kaspin V. I. Introduction to the theory of decision making // Theory of forecasting and decision making. - M.: Higher School, 1977. - S. 223-269. 4. Lisichkin V. A. Expert methods // Theory of forecasting and decision making. - M.: Higher school, 1977. - P. 149-155. 5. V. A. Gorelov, “Singular Forecasting Methods,” in Working Book on Forecasting. - M.: Thought, 1982 - S.132-189. 6. Tail T. Economic forecasts and decision making. M.: Statistics, 1971. - 488 p. 7. Glazovsky N. F. Problems of ecological and geographical expertise // New thinking in geography. - M.: 1991. - S. 110-118. 8. Fedorov Yu. M. Humanitarian expertise: basic concepts of intratheory // Humanitarian expertise. Opportunities and prospects. - Novosibirsk: Science. Siberian. otd., 1992. - S. 33-66. 9. Humanitarian expertise. Opportunities and prospects. - Novosibirsk: Science. Siberian. otd., 1992. - 210 p. 10. Beshelev S. D., Gurvich F. G. Expert assessments. - M. Nauka, 1973. - P. 157. 11. Knyazeva E. N., Kurdyumov S. P. Synergetics as a new worldview: a dialogue with I. Prigogine // Questions of Philosophy. - 1992, - N 12. - P. 3-20.
Scientific notes of the Taurida National University. V. I. Vernadsky
Series "Historical Sciences". Volume 24 (63), No. 2: special issue "History of Ukraine". 2011. pp. 105–110.
UDC: 947.7 (477.75)
TEXTBOOKS PUBLISHED BY I. GASPRINSKY FOR TEACHING
SECULAR DISCIPLINES IN MUSLIM SCHOOLS
Seitmemetova S. A.
Tauride National University. IN AND. Vernadsky, Simferopol, Ukraine
Email: [email protected] A brief analysis of educational printed materials published by the printing house of the newspaper "Terdzhiman" is presented. The main textbooks recommended by I. Gasprinsky for teaching secular disciplines in Muslim schools are considered.
Key words: "Terdzhiman", I. Gasprinsky, Crimean Tatars.
In March 2011, the 160th anniversary of the birth of Ismail Gasprinsky, an outstanding public figure, publicist, reformer of the old-method religious school, educator, who gained fame and recognition among the entire Muslim world, was celebrated in Crimea. Since 1883 I. Gasprinsky began to publish and edit the first national newspaper in the Crimean Tatar and Russian languages under the name "Translator-Terdzhiman". The educator developed his printing house, located in Bakhchisarai, where the House Museum is now located, in rather difficult conditions, trying to follow the novelties of the printing business. Of course, newspapers, literary works, reference books on medicine, economics, philosophy, books on religious subjects were published here. What is worth, published in various formats, the Quran, which has repeatedly won in the competition with powerful British printing companies in the Eastern market, a significant part of the circulation of which was sent to Egypt, India and other countries for sale. However, the most important direction for the publishing house of I. Gasprinsky was educational printed matter, which directly contributed to the spread of education among the Crimean Tatars.
The purpose of this work is to identify and analyze educational printed materials published by the printing house of the newspaper "Terdzhiman", recommended by I. Gasprinsky for the study of secular subjects in Muslim schools. Some aspects of this problem were considered in the works of Gankevich V.Yu., Abibullaeva E.E., Ablaev E.A. and Bogdanovich I.A.
Secular disciplines were introduced into the education system of the Crimean mektebs only thanks to the reforms caused by the social and pedagogical movement Jadidism, where I. Gasprinsky was the generally recognized leader, the most famous propagandist of the sound method. Jadidism in the Crimea had a number of specific features that were not typical for the development of this movement in other regions of the empire. The entire struggle for the creation and development of a network of new method schools usually went through the legality, and the discussion was conducted only in the existing legal SEITMEMETOVA S. A.
framework, only occasionally leaving them. In the latter cases, figures of national education still tried to enter the legal sphere, trying to change the legislation by persuading officials and demonstrating progressive moments in the Crimean Tatar education. For their part, the Muslim clergy quickly moved to the positions of Jadidism, supporting and developing its fundamental principles in pedagogy.
For the successful dissemination of new methods, a fundamentally new educational and methodological literature was needed. By the end of the 19th century, the national school faced the most acute problem of lack of educational literature. The lack of these manuals was partially filled by books published in Kazan, however, they were also lacking and had to turn to foreign, primarily Turkish books. The Russian and provincial educational authorities were very wary of literature published abroad. It was for this reason that on July 10, 1892, by agreement of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Minister of Public Education found it necessary to adopt a rule that only printed books approved by Russian censorship should be used in Muslim schools subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The problem of educational literature was given sufficient attention in the Rules of 1906. In national-confessional schools, only books of the Russian edition could be used.
I. Gasprinsky wrote and published popular textbooks for the new-method schools of the Crimea. Among them, 4 editions of the famous “Khoja-i Subyan” (“Teacher of Children”), which became the first secular textbook for the Crimean Tatar mektebe, stand in a special place. “Khoja-i Subyan” was published in 1884. The following words were written on its cover: “Their parents are responsible for the ignorance of children.”
"Khoja-i subyan" was a classic textbook for primary school students. It was this textbook that Crimean Tatar children studied for 30 years, learning the alphabet using the sound method. In addition to the fact that "Khoja-i subyan" was a textbook for primary new method schools, it was also approved as a textbook for zemstvo ministerial primary schools and confessional mektebs. Taking as a model the educational books of K. D. Ushinsky, I.
Gasprinsky introduced into the publication works of classical literature, folklore, as well as his own literary miniatures and fairy tales. In terms of meaning, the textbook was close to Russian textbooks, but nevertheless it was compiled taking into account national specifics. The content of the primer covers stories of a religious nature, passages from the lives of the prophets, examples of suras from the Koran, etc. Along with this, the textbook presented a large number of various exercises aimed at explaining the objects of the sensory world, which we can use in children (shoes, lamp, glasses, watches, sewing machine, etc.). One of the components of the success of the textbook was the religious-spiritual and progressive-democratic direction of its content. These qualities provided the primer with theoretical and practical relevance for pedagogical science.
The primer implements the general pedagogical concept of I. Gasprinsky, consisting of the idea of the nationality of raising and teaching children in their native language, since in order for the nationality to become independent, two conditions are needed - the native language and national education. A special place in the textbook is occupied by the theme of love for the Fatherland.
Episodes on national history, geography, biology, folklore, etc. are presented on material understandable to children. The textbook is imbued with the desire to educate in children such qualities as truthfulness and honesty, discipline and organization, love and respect for parents, elders and others, culture in behavior, the desire for science and knowledge, initiative, and activity. The materials of all four parts of the textbook are directed to these topics.
I. Gasprinsky on the pages of “Terdzhiman” determined that “the initial manual compiled and tested by us in practice called “Children's Teacher” - “Khoja-i Subyan” - contains (for teachers) the basis of school discipline and order, the beginnings of pedagogy and teaching methods , and consecutive lessons for children (with instructions for the teacher) on Tatar and Arabic literacy, dictation, arithmetic and Muslim law. The textbook is adapted for use by people who do not have pedagogical training, and we think that our book will serve not only for goji and mektebdar, but also for any literate mother to teach her child.
One of the advanced principles of learning is mindfulness and activity in learning. A striking example of this is Gasprinsky's use of the sound method of teaching literacy. He recommends the analytical-synthetic method of writing and reading, introduced by K. D. Ushinsky.
The reading sequence was as follows:
sound analysis of a word, a letter; reading what is written; reading words and quotes in the alphabet;
reading and rewriting new words from the alphabet; search for familiar letters and phrases in the text; composing words from the letters of the printed alphabet, pasted on cardboard.
"Khoja-i Subyan" is the best example of a Crimean Tatar textbook compiled on the principle of visualization. Assessing the importance of visualization in primary education, I. Gasprinsky wrote: “We have devoted a significant place to drawings ...”
However, these illustrations did not contradict Shariah. Then he explained that the third part of the textbook contains 18 drawings, and the fourth - 31. Exercises, stories, stories are written in a simple, accessible language, so that the book "could be easily understood in a Tatar family." The first part provided the study of all the letters of the alphabet. After mastering all the letters, the children had to move on to reading short stories (“Garden”, “Garden”, “Mother and Son”, “Padishah and the Old Man”, “Russian State”, etc.). Then the Arabic language was studied. The cover of the second part of the textbook indicated: "Special textbook for the study of the Turkic language." The third part of the textbook was "Learning to read and useful messages." The textbook was published in two languages - Crimean Tatar (Arabic script) and Russian (Cyrillic).
SEITMEMETOVA S. A.
In 1894 the textbook "Kyyrayet Turkiy" ("Turkish Reader") was published, an anthology for "children's reading", which is a kind of continuation of the textbook "Khoja-i Subyan". The anthology includes materials on arithmetic, reading, writing exercises, geography and history, which are interspersed all the time. Literary works placed in the anthology are mostly small stories of a cognitive nature, as well as moral and educational content - about good and evil, justice and insults, about human devotion, etc. In the same way, instruction on geography is given, first in general terms, then to each lesson. In the process of knowledge in geography, students receive elementary knowledge about water and land, about the earth, about the countries of the world, about the people inhabiting them, about the seas, oceans, economy and economy. According to its content, “Kyaraet Turki” supplements “Khoja-i Subyan” with instructive stories on some general educational subjects: arithmetic, geography, history, natural science, botany, zoology. In conditions when there was not a single official textbook in any subject in the Crimean Tatar school, “Kyiraet Turki” was not just an anthology, but a kind of synthetic textbook for elementary school in the native language.
To teach correct and beautiful handwriting, I. Gasprinsky offered sets of cheap calligraphic copybooks, which were widely used in elementary new method schools. They helped to learn how to write correctly in Arabic script "by way of guidance." Notebooks "Slyus" were recommended for teaching large writing, and "Rick-a" for small writing. The Talik notebook helped me to improve my skills in writing Persian texts.
After acquiring the printing house, I. Gasprinsky, even before the appearance of Terdzhiman, published separate brochures. In 1882, the following were published: "Miraat Dzhedid" ("New Mirror"), "Salname-i-Turkiy" ("Short Turkic Grammar"). In 1885
the manual "Rusie dzhografiyasy" ("Geography of Russia") was published. In 1897, a whole series of grammar textbooks was published. Among them: "Persian Grammar", "Arabic Grammar", "Turkish Grammar".
Particular attention should be paid to the manual "Sarf Turkiy" ("Turkish Grammar") of 1897. This study guide includes information on phonetics, graphics and grammar of the Turkic languages. Theoretical provisions are accompanied by illustrations and material for practical work, grammatical rules are given that cover individual phenomena of the morphology of the Turkic languages. "Sarf and Turkic" consists of two parts, small in volume. The first part, called "Harf" ("Letter"), deals with graphics issues, sets out the rules for writing in Arabic letters. The second part is devoted to parts of speech, their grammatical categories and word formation. In this textbook, as in other grammars of this time, a borrowed from Arabic terminology. However, as early as the beginning of the 20th century, the author of the Grammar made an attempt to move away from traditional Arabic terminology and use common Turkic words as terms.
Among teaching aids It is worth highlighting “Rekhber muallimin yaki muallimler eldashi” (“Guide to a teacher or teacher’s companion”), which is familiar with the basic principles of Jadidism. On the pages of the work, the problems of teaching in the mektebs "usul-i kadim" were consecrated. First of all, he gave valuable advice on the organization of the scientific work of the teacher and the school in general.
In 1889, I. Gasprinsky published a book called "Jian name"
(“Country Studies”), in which he gives a general concept of geography, a geographical map, countries of the world, peoples living in different parts of the world, traditions and customs. The book practically becomes a manual on geography, introducing students to the political, economic, physical map of the world.
In 1892, “Beden-i insan” (“Anatomy”) was published in the type-lithography of the newspaper “Terjiman-Translator”, in 1894 - “Numyune-i hattat ve resim” (“Spelling Rules”), in 1897 - "Mukhtasir ilm-i esap" ("Scientific Mathematics"), in 1901 - "Jography Atlases".
In the book "Nasikhat-i tibbie" ("Medical Instructions"), published in 1901, I. Gasprinsky makes a brief overview of accidents in human life and tells how to provide first aid at home, what precautions should be taken when handling sick and wounded.
In 1910, a whole set of textbooks and teaching aids was published, which, in addition to “Khoja and Subyan”, included the Koran, “Techvid” - a textbook for teaching the correct pronunciation of the suras of the Koran, “Ilmi-Khal” - a theology textbook for Sunni Muslims, which revealed the main creeds, worship, morals, basic religious rites, "Tarih Islam" - a textbook devoted to sacred history in the coverage of Islamic dogma, "Sarf" - a short grammar of the native language, "Talik Farsi" - a short textbook of the Persian language.
Thanks to the successful activities of I. Gasprinsky in the field of education, the funds of Crimean Tatar pedagogy were replenished with a dozen textbooks, brochures, numerous and varied periodicals and other book products, educational, popular science, general education, art, and among them textbooks for teaching secular disciplines, such as: anatomy, geography, mathematics occupied one of the central places. Textbooks written by I. Gasprinsky introduced new didactic principles into the life of new method schools, raised the importance of the lesson as the main form of organizing the educational process, becoming the first secular manuals for Muslim schools in Crimea.
Bibliography
1. Gankevich V.Yu. Essays on the history of the Crimean Tatar public education. Reformation of ethno-confessional educational institutions of Muslims in the Tauride province in the XIX - early XX centuries / V. Yu. Gankevich. - Simferopol: Tavria, 1998. - 164 p.
2. Gafarov S. Ismail Gasprinsky - a great educator / comp. Ziyadinov F. - Simferopol:
Tarpan, 2001. - 258 p.
3. Osmanov Yu. From the captivity of lies: scientific articles about the work and activities of Ismail Gasprinsky / Yu. Osmanov. - Simferopol: Share, 2001. - 256 p.
4. Abibullaeva E.E. Pedagogical foundations of "Khoja-i subyan" / E.E. Abibullaeva // Relay race of generations: materials of scientific and practical. conf. dedicated to the 130th anniversary of the opening of the Simferopol Tatar Teachers' School (November 21-22, 2002) - Simferopol: Share, 2003. - P. 62-68
SEITMEMETOVA S. A.
6. Ablaev E. A. Progressive pedagogical ideas Crimean Tatars in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries: on the material of the pedagogical heritage of I. Gasprinsky: diss. … dr. ped. Sciences:
13.00.01. - Tashkent, 1991. - 266 p.
7. Bogdanovich I. O., Gankevich V. Yu. Dozhelel of the Crimean Tatar journalism: a heading guide / I. O. Bogdanovich, V. Yu. Gankevich. - Simferopol, 2004. - 356 p.
Sєїїtmemetova S. А. Gasprinsky for the teaching of worldly disciplines in Muslim schools / S.A. V.I. Vernadsky. Series "Historical sciences". - 2011. - V. 24 (63), No. 2: special edition "History of Ukraine" - P. 105–110.
The article has a short analysis of the primary produced products of the newspaper "Terdzhiman". Reviewed the main teaching aids, recommendations I. Gasprinsky for teaching secular disciplines in Muslim schools.
Key words: "Terjiman", I. Gasprinsky, Crimean Tatars.
Seitmemetova S. A. Books by I. Gasprinsky" edition for teaching secular disciplines in Muslim
schools / S. A. Seitmemetova // Scientific Notes of Taurida V. I. Vernadsky National University. – Series:
historical science. - 2011. - Vol. 24 (63), No 2: "History of Ukraine". - P. 105-110.
In the article is a short analysis of educational printed production published by the publishing house "Terdzhiman." Here are considered the main educational publications which are recommended by I. Gasprinsky for teaching secular subjects in Muslim schools Keywords: "Terdzhiman", I. Gasprinskiy, Crimean Tatars.
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