1.1 Formation of the idea of ​​development in biology
Development evolutionary ideas has a long history in biology. It has passed the way of becoming from a scientific idea to a scientific theory. The beginning of the consideration of the evolution of the organic world was laid back in ancient philosophy and continued for over 2,000 years. The main content of this period is the collection of information about the organic world, as well as the formation of two points of view that explain the diversity of species in wildlife.
The first of them arose on the basis of ancient dialectics, which affirmed the idea of ​​development and change in the surrounding world. The second appeared along with the Christian worldview based on the ideas of creationism.
For initial stage In the development of the evolutionary idea, there was a constant struggle between these two points of view, and the creationist version had a serious advantage.
During the initial period, a number of valuable ideas were expressed that were necessary to establish the evolutionary approach. The idea of ​​gradual change in organisms can be found in Plato(427 - 347 BC). Special meaning have conclusions Aristotle(384 - 322 BC) in the work "On the Parts of Animals". First of all, his idea of ​​the “ladder of living beings”, showing the existence of organisms, is of value. varying degrees difficulties.
1.2 Theories of J.B. Lamarck and J. Cuvier
In the 18th century, ideas appeared related not only to the recognition of gradation, but also to the constant complication of organic forms. The Swiss naturalist C. Bonnet was the first to use the concept of evolution as a process of long-term, gradual change leading to the emergence of new species.
In a single theory, the ideas of gradation and the ideas of evolution merged in the 19th century in evolutionary theory J. B. Lamarck(1744-1829) in the scientific work "Philosophy of Zoology". Lamarck believed that the first self-generated organisms gave rise to the whole variety of living forms that currently exist. Lamarck considered the reason for evolution to be the inherent desire of the Creator to complicate and improve its organization, inherent in living nature, by “exercising” the organs. The second factor in the evolution and unlimited variability of species, he called the influence of the external environment: as long as it does not change, the species are constant, as soon as it becomes different, the species also begin to change.
The merit of Lamarck is that he was the first to propose a genealogical classification of animals, built on the principles of relatedness of organisms, and not their similarity.
From point of view modern science, Lamarck's evidence for the causes of species variability was not convincing enough. Therefore, Lamarck's theory did not receive recognition from his contemporaries. But it has not been refuted.
He made a great contribution to the development of evolutionary theory J. Cuvier(1769-1832), who himself proceeded from the idea of ​​the constancy of the species. Cuvier systematically compared the structure of the same organ or organ system in different animals. He established that all organs of any living organism are parts of a single integral system. Therefore, the structure of each organ naturally correlates with the structure of the rest. Cuvier called this correspondence the principle of correlations . The undoubted merit of Cuvier was the application of this principle in paleontology, which made it possible to restore the appearance of animals that had long disappeared from the Earth.
It was very popular in the early 19th century catastrophe theory , also formulated by Cuvier, based on his study of the history of the Earth, terrestrial animals and plants. As a result, Cuvier came to the conclusion that cataclysms periodically occurred on Earth, destroying entire continents, and with them their inhabitants. Later, new organisms appeared in their place. The followers of Cuvier claimed that the catastrophes covered the entire globe. Each catastrophe was followed by an act of divine creation. They counted 27 such catastrophes and acts of creation.
The position of the theory of catastrophes was shaken only in the middle of the 19th century. significant role played in this principle of actualism Ch. Lyell(1797-1875). He proceeded from the fact that in order to know the past of the Earth, it is necessary to study its present. Lyell came to the conclusion that slow, tiny changes on the Earth can lead to amazing results if they go in one direction for a long time. Thus, another step was taken towards evolutionary theory, the creator of which was C. R. Darwin (1809 – 1882).
1.3 C. R. Darwin's theory of evolution
If before Darwin biology focused on the stability of biological organisms and was able to identify certain structural patterns, for example, the connections of organs and the integrity of living organisms, then the theory of evolution fundamentally changed the very formulation of questions in theoretical biology. The starting point of the theory of evolution was the problem of variability, and the question of the stability of changes began to be considered as a mechanism for selecting changes, their stabilization.
Darwin analyzed the phenomena of individual variability of organisms, emphasizing that the source of changes is the influence of changed conditions of existence. The mechanism that ensures the accumulation of individual differences is natural selection, conditioned by the struggle for existence. Through this struggle, slight, indefinite differences contribute to the preservation of individuals and are inherited by their offspring.
Thus, Darwin's theory is based on certain premises and principles, a number of which are not accepted in modern theories evolution: 1) the principle according to which the species tends to unlimited reproduction (geometric progression of reproduction); 2) the principle of variability, according to which individual differences and deviations, which ensure the adaptability of individuals to changing environmental conditions, constantly arise; 3) heredity of useful individual changes; 4) selection of the fittest individuals. Although Darwin absolutized the gradualness of change, emphasizing that nature does not make leaps, according to the plan of evolutionary biology, the emergence of new species is explained by a qualitative leap - the divergence of characters and the transformation of varieties into species.
Nowadays, a number of weak points of Darwin's evolutionary theory and, above all, the idea of ​​selectogenesis inherent in it, are criticized.
One of the objections was that she could not explain the reasons for the appearance in organisms of structures that seem useless. However, as it turned out later, many morphological differences between species that are not important for survival are simply side effects of the action of genes that cause subtle, but very important physiological traits for survival.
Weak point in Darwin's theory there were also ideas about heredity. Indeed, if evolution is associated with the random appearance of change and the hereditary transmission of acquired characteristics to offspring, then how can they be preserved and strengthened?
In the future, some other shortcomings of Darwin's theory were also revealed. The theory needed further development and substantiation, taking into account the subsequent achievements of all biological disciplines.
1.4 Synthetic theory of evolution
A special role in the formation of new ideas about development was played by genetics, which formed the basis of neo-Darwinism - the theory of organic revolution through natural selection of genetically determined traits. Another common name for neo-Darwinism is synthetic , or general, theory of evolution (STE ) , which is a synthesis of Darwin's evolutionary ideas with new research results in the field of heredity and variability. The beginning of the development of STE is considered to be the work of the Russian geneticist S.S. Chetverikova in population genetics. Then about 50 scientists from eight countries joined this work.
The main provisions of STE can be reduced to four statements:
1) the main factor of evolution is natural selection, which integrates and regulates the action of all other factors (mutagenesis, hybridization, migration, isolation, etc.);
2) evolution proceeds gradually, through the selection of random mutations, and new forms are formed through hereditary changes;
3) evolutionary changes are random and undirected. The original organization of the population and changes in external conditions limit and direct hereditary changes;
4) macroevolution, leading to the formation of supraspecific groups, is carried out only through microevolutionary processes. There are no specific mechanisms for the emergence of new life forms.
However, the synthetic theory of evolution also has a number of difficulties that put evolutionists in a difficult position, and on which non-Darwinian concepts of evolution are based. What can they object if there really is no evidence of allegedly ongoing total evolution?

Introduction

Story evolutionary doctrine originates in ancient philosophical systems, whose ideas, in turn, were rooted in cosmological myths. The impetus for the recognition of evolution by the scientific community was the publication of Charles Darwin's book "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life", which made it possible to completely rethink the idea of ​​evolution, backing it up with experimental data from numerous observations. The synthesis of classical Darwinism with the achievements of genetics led to the creation of a synthetic theory of evolution.

lamarck darwin catastrophism

Evolutionary ideas in antiquity

Ideas about the variability of the surrounding world, including living beings, were first developed by a number of ancient philosophers. Among them, Heraclitus of Ephesus (late 6th - early 5th century BC) is known as the creator of the concept of perpetual motion and changeability of everything that exists. According to the ideas of Empedocles (c. 490 - c. 430 BC), organisms were formed from the initial chaos in the process of random connection of individual structures, with unsuccessful options (freaks) dying, and harmonious combinations were preserved (a kind of naive idea of ​​\u200b\u200bselection as guiding force of development). The author of the atomistic concept of the structure of the world, Democritus (c. 460 - c. 370 BC), believed that organisms can adapt to changes in the external environment. Finally, Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 95-55 BC) in his famous poem "On the Nature of Things" expressed thoughts about the changeability of the world and the spontaneous generation of life.

Of the philosophers of Antiquity, Aristotle (384-322 BC) enjoyed the greatest fame and authority among naturalists in subsequent epochs (in particular, during the Middle Ages). Aristotle did not support, at least in a fairly clear form, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bchangeability of the surrounding world. However, many of his generalizations, which by themselves fit into the overall picture of the world's immutability, later played an important role in the development of evolutionary ideas. These are Aristotle's thoughts about the unity of the structural plan of higher animals (the similarity of the structure of the corresponding organs in different types was called by Aristotle "analogy"), about the gradual complication ("gradation") of the structure in a series of organisms, about the variety of forms of causality (Aristotle distinguished 4 series of reasons: material, formal, producing, or driving, and target).

The era of Late Antiquity and especially the era of the Middle Ages that followed it became a time of stagnation in the development of natural history concepts that lasted almost one and a half thousand years. Dominant dogmatic forms religious outlook did not allow the idea of ​​the change of the world. The corresponding ideas of ancient philosophers were consigned to oblivion. Opportunities for the development of evolutionary ideas appeared only after the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries), when European science made significant strides forward in the knowledge of the surrounding world.

Report
student group
Gorbunova Julia
on the topic: "The main provisions of the teachings of Darwin"

Evolutionary ideas before Charles Darwin.

There are at least 2 million animal species on Earth, up to 0.5 million plant species,
hundreds of thousands of species of fungi and microorganisms. How did the great diversity
species and their adaptability to the environment? The answer is scientific theory evo-
living nature, the foundations of which were laid in the 19th century by the great English scientist
Charles Darwin.
Before Darwin, most biologists held to ideas of constancy and invariability.
the value of living organisms-species is as much as God created them. Organisms and organisms
gans fully correspond to the goal that the creator allegedly set. The essence of the world is
the views of this period lies in the ideas of constancy, unchanging
ty and the original expediency of nature. Such a worldview was called
metaphysical (Greek "physis" - nature, "meta" - over). Metaphysical representations
The decrees were supported by the church and the ruling circles.
In the 17-18 centuries. many descriptions of animal, plant, and mineral species have accumulated. Og-
the noble task of systematizing these materials was carried out by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778),
Swedish naturalist, doctor. Based on the similarity in one or two of the most noticeable
signs, he classified organisms into species, genera, classes. He correctly mixed
til in one detachment of man and great apes. Linnaeus introduced into science pre-
double Latin names laid down by predecessors - genus and species (Canis familia -
ris-domestic dog). Latin names helped scientists communicate different countries.
Linnaeus fully shared the metaphysical ideas about nature, seeing in
her original expediency, allegedly proving the "wisdom of the creator."
he considered this kind to be the result of a separate creative act, unchanging and constant.
ny, not related to other types of kinship. By the end of life, however, under the influence
observations in nature, he recognized that sometimes species can arise by crossing
or as a result of the actions of environmental changes.
The significance of the works of Linnaeus is enormous: he proposed a system of animals and plants, the best
of all the previous ones; introduced double species names; improved the botanical
language.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the French scientist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) outlined his
evolutionary ideas in the work "Philosophy of Zoology". Lemarck criticized the idea of
constancy and immutability of species. He argued that the formation of new species
occurs very slowly and therefore imperceptibly. In the process of evolution, higher forms
life originated from the lower ones.
The significance of Lamarck's works for the further development of biology is enormous. He is the first
outlined the ideas of the evolution of living nature, asserting historical development from pro-
more complicated. He was the first to raise the question of the factors-driving forces of evolution.
Nevertheless, Lamarck erroneously deduced the factors of evolution from an allegedly inherent
all living things striving for perfection. Incorrectly explained the causes of
fitness by direct influence of conditions environment.False and approved
notion about the obligatory appearance of only useful changes and their inheritance.
So the science of the 18th-early 19th century could not correctly explain driving forces development
organic world. Before her questions arose: how did a huge variety
species? How to explain the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions?
Why is there an increase in the organization of living beings in the process of evolution?

The emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin.

The emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin contributed to the socio-economic
links. In the first half of the 19th century. in Western European countries, especially in England,
intensively developed capitalism, which gave impetus to the development of science, industrial
ty, technology. The demand of industry for raw materials and the population of growing cities for
Food products contributed to the development of agriculture.
Another prerequisite for the emergence of Darwinism is the success of the natural sciences. Descriptions of the system
thematic groups of living organisms led to the idea of ​​the possibility of their relationship.
In many animals, by comparison, a single plan was established in the structure of the body and organs.
Studies of the early stages of development of chordate embryos revealed their striking
similarity. The study of fossil plants and animals has revealed a consistent
the replacement of low-organized forms of life by more highly organized ones.
Extensive materials from overseas expeditions, breeding of new animal breeds and varieties
plants were not consistent with the metaphysical worldview. We needed a genius
a smart mind that would be able to generalize a huge amount of material in the light of a certain idea,
connect with a coherent system of reasoning. Charles Darwin turned out to be such a scientist
(1809-1882).
Since childhood, Ch. Darwin was fond of collecting collections, chemical experiments, observations
for animals. As a student, he studied scientific literature, mastered the methodology of field research
C. Darwin on the ship "Beagle" (English - bloodhound) made a round-the-world voyage
trip. He studied the geological structure, flora and fauna of many countries, sent
brought to England a huge number of collections.
In South America, comparing the found remains of extinct animals with modern ones,
C. Darwin suggested their relationship. In the Galapagos Islands, he found nowhere more
more rare species of lizards, turtles, birds. They are close to South American ones.
The Galapagos Islands are of volcanic origin, and therefore Ch. Darwin suggested
lived that the species came to them from the mainland and gradually changed. In Australia, his
interested in marsupials and oviparous, which died out in other places on earth
ball. Australia as a mainland separated itself when higher mammals had not yet arisen
marsupials and oviparous developed here regardless of the evolution of mammals
melting on other continents. Thus, the belief in the variability of species gradually grew stronger
and the origin of some from others. The first records of the origin of species Darwin made
barked during a round-the-world trip.

Fundamentals of Darwin's teachings.

After the journey, Darwin worked hard for 20 years to create an evolutionary
scientific doctrine and published it in the work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
selection, or Preservation of favored breeds in the struggle for life "(1859). Farther
In the most important works, Darwin developed and deepened various aspects of the main problem
lems-the origin of species. In the book "Change of domestic animals and cultural races-
shadows" on a huge amount of factual material, he showed the patterns of evolution
genus of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants.
In The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection, Darwin applied evolutionary
theory to explain the origin of man from animals. Darwin belongs
capital works on botany, zoology and geology, in which
tanna separate questions of evolutionary theory.
The main merit of Darwin is that he revealed the driving forces of evolution. He is a material
explained the emergence and relative nature of fitness
by the action of natural laws only, without the intervention of supernatural forces.
Darwin's teaching fundamentally undermined metaphysical ideas about the constancy of
dov and their creation by God. What are the driving forces for the evolution of breeds of domestic animals
different varieties of cultivated plants and species in the wild?
The driving forces behind the evolution of breeds and varieties are hereditary variability and produced
selection by man. Darwin established that various breeds of animals and varieties of crops
ny plants created by man in the process of artificial selection. From generation to
generation, a person selected and left individuals with some interesting
for him a change, necessarily hereditary, and eliminated other individuals from
multiplication. As a result, new breeds and varieties, signs and properties were obtained
which are in the interests of the individual.
Is there a similar process in nature? Organisms reproduce in a geometric program
cession, but relatively few survive to a sexually mature state. Significant
some individuals die, leaving no offspring at all or leaving little.
both one species and different species, a struggle for existence arises, under
which Darwin understood the complex and diverse relationships of organisms among themselves
and with environmental conditions. He meant "not only the life of one individual, but
and her success in providing for her offspring.
The consequence of the struggle for existence is natural selection. This term
Darwin called "the maintenance of favorable individual differences and changes and
destruction of harmful ones.
The struggle for existence and natural selection based on hereditary variation
according to Darwin, the main driving forces (factors) of the evolution of the organization
chesky world.
Individual hereditary deviations, the struggle for existence and natural
selection in a long series of generations will lead to a change in species in the direction of all
greater adaptability to specific conditions of existence. Fitness
organisms is always relative.
Another result of natural selection is the variety of species inhabiting
Earth.

The influence of Darwinism on the development of biology.

All branches of biological science were rebuilt on the basis of Darwinism. Paleontology
began to find out the ways of development of the organic world; taxonomy, family ties and
origin of systematic groups; embryology - to establish common in stages
individual development of organisms in the process of evolution; human physiology and
animals - compare their vital activity and identify family ties between
them.
At the beginning of the 20th century began an experimental study of natural selection, quickly
genetics and ecology developed. Darwin's ideas in Russia were supported by
old intelligentsia. In universities, the liberal part of the professorship rebuilt the course
zoology and botany in the light of Darwinism. Articles appeared in journals covering
Darwin's teachings. In 1864, The Origin of Species was first published on
Russian language.
A major role in the development of biological science based on Darwinism belongs to
our domestic scientists. Brothers Kovalevsky, K.A. Timiryazev, I.I. Mechnikov, I.P.
Pavlov, N.I. Vavilov, A.N. Severtsov, I.I. Shmalgauzen, S.S. Chetvertikov and many others
The luminaries of Russian science based their research on Darwin's ideas.

Evolutionary ideas before Charles Darwin.

There are at least 2 million species of animals on Earth, up to 0.5 million species of plants, hundreds of thousands of species of fungi and microorganisms. How did a great variety of species and their adaptability to the environment arise? The 19th century was laid by the great English scientist Charles Darwin.

Before Darwin, most biologists held to the ideas of the constancy and immutability of living organisms-species as long as God created them. Organisms and organs fully correspond to the goal that the creator allegedly set. was called metaphysical (Greek "physis" - nature, "meta" - over). Metaphysical ideas were supported by the church and the ruling circles.

In the 17-18 centuries. many descriptions of species of animals, plants, and minerals have accumulated. The huge task of systematizing these materials was carried out by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, physician. Based on the similarity in one or two most noticeable features, he classified organisms into species, genera, classes. He correctly placed man and great apes in one order. Linnaeus introduced into science the double Latin names proposed by his predecessors - genus and species (Canis familiaris - domestic dog). Latin names helped scientists from different countries to communicate. Linnaeus fully shared the metaphysical ideas about nature, seeing in it the original expediency, allegedly proving the "wisdom of the creator." He considered each species the result of a separate creative act, unchanging and permanent, not related to other species by kinship. in nature, he recognized that sometimes species can arise by crossing or as a result of the actions of environmental changes.

The significance of the works of Linnaeus is enormous: he proposed a system of animals and plants, the best of all the previous ones; he introduced double names of species; he improved the botanical language.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) outlined his evolutionary ideas in his work Philosophy of Zoology. Lemarck criticized the ideas of the constancy and immutability of species. He argued that the formation of new species occurs very slowly and therefore imperceptibly. In the process of evolution, the higher forms of life originated from the lower ones.

The significance of Lamarck's works for the further development of biology is enormous. He was the first to set forth the ideas of the evolution of living nature, which affirmed the historical development from simple to complex. He was the first to raise the question of the factors driving forces of evolution. Nevertheless, Lamarck erroneously derived the factors of evolution from the striving for perfection that is supposedly inherent in all living things. He incorrectly explained the reasons for the emergence of fitness by direct influence of environmental conditions. The statement about the obligatory appearance of only useful changes and their inheritance is also incorrect. So the science of the 18th and early 19th centuries could not correctly explain the driving forces of the development of the organic world. The questions arose before it: how did a huge variety of species arise? How to explain the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions? Why is there an increase in the organization of living beings in the process of evolution?

The emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin.

The emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin was facilitated by socio-economic prerequisites. In the first half of the 19th century. in Western Europe, especially in England, capitalism developed intensively, which gave impetus to the development of science, industry, technology. The demand of industry for raw materials and the population of growing cities for food contributed to the development of agriculture.

Another prerequisite for the emergence of Darwinism is the success of the natural sciences. Descriptions of the systematic groups of living organisms led to the idea of ​​the possibility of their relationship. In many animals, by comparison, a single plan was established in the structure of the body and organs. Studies of the early stages of development of chordate embryos have revealed their striking similarity. The study of fossil plants and animals has revealed a successive change of low-organized life forms by more highly organized ones.

The extensive materials of overseas expeditions, the breeding of new animal breeds and plant varieties did not agree with the metaphysical worldview. A brilliant mind was needed who could generalize the huge material in the light of a certain idea, connect it with a coherent system of reasoning. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) turned out to be such a scientist.

Since childhood, Charles Darwin was fond of collecting collections, chemical experiments, observing animals. As a student, he studied scientific literature, mastered the methodology of field research. and the fauna of many countries, sent to England a huge number of collections.

In South America, comparing the found remains of extinct animals with modern ones, Charles Darwin suggested their relationship. On the Galapagos Islands, he found species of lizards, turtles, and birds that are nowhere else found. They are close to South American ones. The Galapagos Islands are of volcanic origin, and therefore Ch. Darwin suggested that species came to them from the mainland and gradually changed. In Australia, he was interested in marsupials and oviparous, which died out in other places on the globe. Australia, as a mainland, became isolated when higher mammals had not yet arisen .Marsupials and oviparous developed here independently of the evolution of mammals on other continents. Thus, the belief in the variability of species and the origin of some from others gradually grew stronger. Darwin made the first records of the origin of species during a round-the-world trip.

Fundamentals of Darwin's teachings.

After the trip, Darwin worked hard for 20 years to create an evolutionary doctrine and published it in his work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life" (1859). In further works, Darwin developed and deepened various aspects of the main problem - the origin of species. In the book "Changing Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants," on a huge amount of factual material, he showed the patterns of evolution of domestic animal breeds and varieties of cultivated plants.

In the work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection", Darwin applied evolutionary theory to explain the origin of man from animals. Darwin owns major works on botany, zoology and geology, in which certain issues of evolutionary theory are elaborated in detail.

The main merit of Darwin is that he revealed the driving forces of evolution. He materialistically explained the emergence and relative nature of fitness by the action of only natural laws, without the intervention of supernatural forces. Darwin's teaching fundamentally undermined metaphysical ideas about the constancy of species and their creation by God. What are the driving forces behind the evolution of domestic animal breeds, varieties of cultivated plants and species in the wild?