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One of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China, which outlined philosophical ideas, is the "I Ching" ("Book of Changes"). The name of this source has a deep meaning, the essence of which is an attempt to reflect the processes occurring in nature, including its celestial sphere with a natural system of stars. The heavenly nature (the world), together with the Sun and the Moon, in the process of its daily orbits, either rising or falling, creates all the diversity of the constantly changing heavenly world. Hence the name of the literary monument - "The Book of Changes". Strictly speaking, the “Book of Changes” is not yet a philosophical work, but a kind of literary and poetic laboratory, in which the transition from pre-philosophical and, to some extent, mythological ideas to proper philosophical thinking takes place, and the collectivist generic consciousness develops into personal philosophical views perfectly wise people. The Book of Changes occupies a special place in the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought. The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, are Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC) and Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). e.). Although in Ancient China other thinkers also worked, but first of all, the philosophical heritage of Laozi and Confucius gives a fairly objective idea of ​​the philosophical searches of ancient Chinese thinkers. Laozi's ideas are set forth in the book "Tao Te Ching", which was prepared for publication by his followers and appeared at the turn of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. e.

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The Book of Changes, the works of the thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of Ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation or a tree without roots - so great is their contribution to one of the most profound philosophical systems in the world. The philosophy of ancient China: Yin and Yang, as well as the eight trigrams formed from them - the basis of predictions according to the Book of Changes "I-Ching", that is, the "Book of Changes", is one of the earliest monuments of the philosophy of Ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of the variability of nature and human life as a result of a regular change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The sun and moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing heavenly world. Hence the name of the first work of the philosophy of Ancient China - "The Book of Changes". In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought, the "Book of Changes" occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every sage of the Celestial Empire tried to comment on and interpret the contents of the "Book of Changes". This commentary and research activity, which dragged on for centuries, laid the foundations of the philosophy of Ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development. The most prominent representatives of the philosophy of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and issues under study for two millennia ahead, are Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived in the period 5-6 Art. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, nevertheless, first of all, the legacy of these two people is considered the foundation of the philosophical searches of the Celestial Empire.

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Lao Tzu - "Wise Elder" The ideas of Lao Tzu (real name - Li Er) are set forth in the book "Tao Te Ching", in our opinion - "The Canon of Tao and Virtue". This work, consisting of 5 thousand characters, Lao Tzu left to the guard on the border of China, when at the end of his life he went to the West. The significance of the "Tao Te Ching" can hardly be overestimated for the philosophy of Ancient China. The central concept that is considered in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning of the hieroglyph "dao" in Chinese- this is a “way”, “road”, but it can also be translated as “the root cause”, “principle”. "Tao" in Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. "Tao" is the non-material spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including man. With these words, Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao just by talking about It. And it is impossible to give a human name to that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of all that exists. Only one who has freed himself from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

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Confucius The further formation and development of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with the activities of Confucius, perhaps the most prominent Chinese thinker, whose teachings still have millions of admirers and not only in China. The formation of Confucius as a thinker was largely facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: “The Book of Songs” (“Shijing”), “Books of Historical Traditions” (“Shujing”). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available to the general public. The great popularity of Confucius for many centuries to come was brought by substantial and numerous comments made by him to the "Book of Changes". Confucius' own views were set forth in the book "Conversations and Judgments" ("Lun Yu"), which was published by students and followers on the basis of his sayings and teachings. Confucius is the creator of the original ethical and political doctrine, some provisions of which have not lost their significance even today. The basic concepts of Confucianism, which form the foundation of this teaching, are “jen” (philanthropy, humanity) and “li”. "Ren" acts both as the foundation of the ethical-political doctrine and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of "jen": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to people." The means of gaining "ren" is the practical embodiment of "li". The criterion of applicability and acceptability of “whether” is “and” (duty, justice). “Li” (reverence, community norms, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules that regulate, in essence, all spheres of public life, from the family to state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups. Moral principles, social relations, problems of public administration - the main topics in the teachings of Confucius. As for the levels of knowledge, he makes the following gradation: higher knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to draw instructive lessons from difficulties. So, it can be argued with good reason that Laozi and Confucius, with their philosophical work, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.

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Philosophical ideas V ancient india begin to form around the 2nd millennium BC. e. Humanity does not know earlier examples. In our time, they have become known thanks to the ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name "Vedas", literally meaning knowledge, knowledge. The “Vedas” are original hymns, prayers, chants, spells, etc. They were written approximately in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Sanskrit. In the "Vedas" for the first time an attempt is made to approach the philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world surrounding a person, nevertheless they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

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A significant contribution to the development of philosophy in ancient India was made by Buddhism. The founder of Buddhism is considered Siddhartha Guatama, or Buddha (c. 583 - 483 BC). The name Siddhartha means “one who has reached the goal”, Gautama is a generic name. The search for a path leading to overcoming the suffering experienced by people became the main driving force behind Gautama's life. He renounces his throne and family and becomes a wandering ascetic. At the beginning, he turned to yogic meditation, which is the realization of the desire to find the divine principle. human personality through the discipline of body and mind. But this way of approaching God did not satisfy him. Then he passed the path of strict austerity. Gautama's penance was so severe that he was close to death. However, this path did not lead him to the goal. Finally, he sat down under a tree, facing the east, and determined not to leave that place until he had received enlightenment. On the night of the full moon, Gautama overcame the four stages of a meditative trance, accurately realized what was happening, and in the last watch of the night he gained enlightenment and became a Buddha, i.e., “Enlightened”. The Buddha saw the path leading to liberation from all suffering, i.e. to "nirvana". At thirty-five, he gave his first sermon, which is called "The First Turning of the Wheel of Diarma." The Buddha called his path the middle path, because he rejected both asceticism and hedonism, which presupposes the pursuit of pleasure, as one-sided extremes. In this sermon he proclaimed the "Four Noble Truths". Their essence boils down to the following: all human life is continuous suffering; the cause of suffering is the desire for pleasure; suffering can be stopped only on the path of renunciation of attachments and detachment; leads to the cessation of suffering “Noble Eightfold Path”, which involves the use of right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right means of life, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

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Philosophy Ancient Greece- the greatest flowering of human genius. The ancient Greeks had the priority of creating philosophy as a science of the universal laws of the development of nature, society and thinking; as a system of ideas that explores the cognitive, value, ethical and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Philosophers such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato are the founders of philosophy as such. Originating in ancient Greece, philosophy formed a method that could be used in almost all areas of life. Greek philosophy cannot be understood without aesthetics - the theory of beauty and harmony. Ancient Greek aesthetics was part of undifferentiated knowledge. The beginnings of many sciences have not yet budded into independent branches from a single tree of human knowledge. Unlike the ancient Egyptians, who developed science in a practical aspect, the ancient Greeks preferred theory. Philosophy and philosophical approaches to solving any scientific problem underlie ancient Greek science. Therefore, to single out scientists involved in "pure" scientific problems, it is forbidden. In ancient Greece, all scientists were philosophers, thinkers and possessed knowledge of the basic philosophical categories. The idea of ​​the beauty of the world runs through all ancient aesthetics. In the worldview of ancient Greek natural philosophers there is not a shadow of doubt about the objective existence of the world and the reality of its beauty. For the first natural philosophers, beauty is the universal harmony and beauty of the universe. In their teaching, the aesthetic and cosmological are united. The universe for the ancient Greek natural philosophers is the cosmos (the universe, peace, harmony, decoration, beauty, dress, order). The idea of ​​its harmony and beauty is included in the general picture of the world. Therefore, at first all sciences in ancient Greece were combined into one - cosmology.

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PLAN 1. Characteristic features and periodization of ancient philosophy 2. Philosophical schools pre-Socratic period 3. Philosophical views of the classical period 4. Philosophical schools of the Hellenistic-Roman period

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The emergence of ancient philosophy VI century BC - the emergence of ancient philosophy in the city-states of the Mediterranean

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* Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) Axial time - VII-V centuries. BC. - the era of the formation of philosophy in the world

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Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, covering the period from the 7th century. BC. Ancient philosophy arose in the Greek policies (trade and craft city-states) of Asia Minor, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the Crimea, Greece itself - in Athens, in the Hellenistic states of Asia and Africa, in the Roman Empire. Ancient philosophy made an exceptional contribution to the development of world civilization. It was here that European culture and civilization were born, here are the origins of Western philosophy, almost all of its subsequent schools, ideas and ideas. Features Ancient philosophy originated not as a field of special philosophical research, but inextricably linked with scientific knowledge - mathematical, natural sciences, with the rudiments of political concepts, as well as with mythology and art. Spiritual development in the VII-IV centuries. BC. went from mythology and religion to science and philosophy. There are two main types of philosophical outlook - materialism ("Democritus' line") and idealism ("Plato's line"). There are two opposing main methods of thinking - dialectics and metaphysics. Ancient philosophy was the first historically known form of dialectical philosophy. In the broad sense of the word, the term "antiquity" (Latin antiquus - ancient) means "antiquity". In a narrow sense, the concept of "antiquity" is associated with the history and culture of Ancient Greece (Hellas) and Ancient Rome.

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Stages of development of Western philosophy Ancient philosophy (VII century BC - V century AD) medieval philosophy(V-XIII centuries AD) Philosophy of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries AD) Philosophy of the New Age (XVII-XVIII centuries AD) Modern Philosophy(XIX-XXI centuries AD)

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Table "Periods of development of ancient philosophy" The period of early Greek philosophy VI century BC. The heyday of ancient philosophy V-IV centuries. BC. The period of decline of ancient philosophy Second half of the 4th century BC – I century BC The period of the decline of ancient philosophy and the birth of Christian philosophy I - VI centuries.

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I period - pre-Socratic (VII-V centuries BC) II period - classical (mid-V - end of IV centuries BC) III period - Hellenistic (end of IV-II centuries BC) ) IV period - Roman (I century BC-V century AD)

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Democratic philosophical schools of ancient Greece arose in the 7th-5th centuries. BC. in the early ancient Greek policies Philosophical schools Philosophy of naturalistic orientation Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus) Pythagorean school (Pythagoras, Archytas of Tarentum) Elean school (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus) Atomistics (Leucippus, Democritus) Other philosophers (Empedocles, .Anaxagoras) Philosophy of humanistic orientation Sophistry (Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Antiphon). The Sophists made a revolution, shifting philosophical reflection from the problems of nature and space to the problem of man and his life as a member of society. The Sophists are a phenomenon as necessary as Socrates and Plato; the latter without the former are inconceivable.

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Philosophical schools of antiquity The Miletus school The Pythagorean Union The teachings of Heraclitus The teachings of Democritus

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Schools of the Pre-Socratic/Natural Philosophical Period The main problem is the origin

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Milesian school Thales of Miletus 640/624-548/545 BC Anaximander 610-547/540 BC Anaximenes 585-525 BC

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The MILETIAN SCHOOL arose at the turn of the 7th-5th century. BC. in Miletus - the largest Greek trade and craft policy in Asia Minor Characteristic features Naturalistic approach in understanding Nature and Space. The search for the beginning - the substance from which the surrounding world arose. Primary matter was understood not as dead and inert matter, but as a living substance and in parts, endowed with soul and movement (pantheism). The solution of philosophical and natural-science questions was linked with practical activity. Knowledge was not only the basis for practical application, but, above all, elements of an integral worldview. The vision of the world is essentially naturalistic. Development of astronomical, mathematical, physical and biological knowledge; construction of the first scientific instruments (sun clock, model of the celestial sphere, etc.).

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The central question of the Milesian school What is the beginning of all things? Water (Thales) Apeiron (Anaximander) Air (Anaximenes)

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Anaximander (610-547 BC) Basic views: The beginning of all things - "apeiron" - the eternal, infinite substance from which everything arose, everything consists and into which everything will turn. God is the root cause, and the Gods become worlds, universes, of which there are many, and they cyclically arise and perish. The world consists of a series of opposites that determine the genesis of the Cosmos. The center of the Universe is the Earth, which is a section of a cylinder that floats in the air.

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Thales (625-547 BC) Basic views: The beginning of all things - water - "phase", liquid, fluid, and what we drink is just one of its states. Water correlates with the divine principle. Inanimate nature, all things have a soul (hylozoism). The center of the Universe is the Earth, which is a flat disk resting on water. The universe is full of gods.

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Anaximenes (585-525 BC) Basic views: The beginning of all things is air, which goes through a series of stages in its change: fire - air - winds - clouds - earth - stones. The air included in the above series is not identical with the original. Air is the source of life and psychic phenomena. The earth is a flat disk floating in the air. The gods are identified with Nature.

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PYTHAGOREANS - followers of Pythagoras (2nd half of VI - beginning of V no. BC.), An ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician who founded a religious union in the Greek city of Croton

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Pythagoras of Samos 570-490 BC Numbers are the basis and beginning of every thing. The essence of every phenomenon can be written in a digital series.

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Character traits Pythagorean school It arose as a kind of brotherhood or religious order, subject to strict rules of community and behavior. The teaching was perceived as a secret, which only adepts were allowed to know and the disclosure of which was strictly forbidden. The Pythagorean Union was a reactionary party organization of the aristocracy.

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The main provisions of the philosophy of the Pythagoreans True world view, according to Pythagoras, rests on three foundations: morality, religion and knowledge. The morality of Pythagoras is the morality of an aristocrat. The tasks of science are subordinated to the interests of religion. The root cause of all things is number. Everything in nature is measured, subject to number, in number is the essence of all things; to know the world, its structure, its laws - this means to know the numbers that control it. The mysticism of numbers is the core of Pythagorean idealism. The doctrine of opposites is formed into a system of metaphysically understood opposites (limit and infinity, odd and even, one and many, right and left, male and female, resting and moving, straight and crooked, light and dark, good and bad, quadrangular and versatile) . The main philosophical significance is the opposition of the limiting and the infinite, which determines all other opposites. The Pythagoreans basically stood on the position of a metaphysical world outlook, which is entirely connected with their understanding of number. The Pythagoreans excelled in the study of music, geometry and celestial mechanics.

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The second after Miletus center of ancient Greek philosophy in Asia Minor was the city of Ephesus, the birthplace of the philosopher Heraclitus (c. 530-470 BC). Heraclitus is one of the founders of dialectics, whose teaching is the most striking expression of the spontaneous dialectics of ancient Greek philosophy.

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Heraclitus of Ephesus 544-483 BC The beginning is fire The universal development and change of things, their struggle and transition into their opposites Everything flows, everything changes You cannot enter the same river twice Everything happens through struggle: struggle is the father of everything

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Leucippus school of atomists, 5th c. BC. Democritus 460-370 BC There are two primary principles - being and non-being Being consists of many atoms invisible to the eye There is a void as a space where atoms can move

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The founder of atomistics was Leucippus (c. 500-440 BC), whose teaching was continued by the scientist-encyclopedist and philosopher-materialist Democritus (460-370 BC). Democritus was considered the founder of the materialistic direction in philosophy ("Democritus' line" - the opposite of "Plato's line" - the idealistic direction).

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The main provisions of the philosophy of the atomists The world consists of space and the matter that fills it, or of atoms and emptiness. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They are eternal and indivisible, simple and qualitatively unchanged. There are primary differences between them: form, order and position. In addition, they vary in size and severity. The principle of motion of matter is the basis of the entire atomistic system. Atoms are in eternal motion, an atom is a moving matter. The universe is infinite, and the number of worlds in it is infinite. The earth is flat. The recognition of universal causal necessity is one of the basic principles of the entire atomist system. Hence, the atomists both deny randomness and recognize it: they deny it in the sense of being without cause - no event can arise without a cause; recognize in the sense of the opposite of expediency - no event in nature arises and does not occur for the sake of the implementation of any goal. In this sense, every event is random. The initial beginning and foundation in cognition are sensations, and everything that the mind gives for cognition, it ultimately owes to the senses. The life and death of organisms is the combination and reproduction of atoms. The same principle underlies psychology: the soul consists of fiery atoms and is a temporary union. The immortality of the soul is denied. Atomists, in particular Democritus, show great interest in questions of politics, government, questions and problems of physics, mathematics, technology, aesthetics, philology, and music.

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Eleatic school Xenophanes 570-475 BC Parmenides 540-450 BC Zeno of Elea 490-430 BC

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ELEATS - representatives of the Elean philosophical school, which existed in the VI-V centuries. BC. in the ancient Greek city of Elea on the territory of modern Italy. Representatives: Xenophanes Parmenides Zeno

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The central question of the Eleatic School What is to eat? All things exist, they all have being. The concept of being, which underlies all things in the world, is introduced into philosophy. Being is the basis of reality; it is eternal, whole, indivisible, motionless and indestructible

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The main provisions of the philosophy of the Eleatics All philosophical worldviews, from the point of view of Parmenides, rest on one of three basic premises: 1) only being exists, there is no non-being, 2) not only being, but also non-being exists, and 3) being and non-being are identical. These premises are the basis of three philosophical schools: the first is the starting point of the Eleatic school, the second underlies the teachings of the Pythagorean school, and the third is the teaching of Heraclitus of Ephesus. The Eleatics were the first to try to understand the world by applying to the variety of things philosophical concepts limiting generality (existence, non-existence, movement). A single being is understood by the Eleatics as continuous, inseparable, equally present in every smallest element of reality, excluding the quantitative plurality of things and their movement (Zeno's aporias about the impossibility of movement). Plurality and movement cannot be thought without contradiction, and therefore they are not the essence of being. In knowledge, Eleatics distinguish between truth based on rational knowledge and opinion based on sensory perceptions. The latter acquaint us only with the appearance of things, but do not give us knowledge of their true essence. Only the mind can comprehend the truth about the world, based on the identity of thinking and being. The concept of being, as the Eleatics comprehended it, contains three points: 1) there is being, but there is no non-being; 2) being is one, indivisible; 3) being is knowable, and non-being (appearance) is unknowable: it does not exist for the mind, which means it does not exist. The world the Eleatics considered it as something changeable and mobile, presenting it within the framework of sensory knowledge.

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The heyday of the ancient philosophy of the Sophists The teachings of Socrates Platonism, or the Academy Aristotelianism, or the Lyceum Fragment of Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens"

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Sophists Protagoras 490-420 BC Gorgias 483-375 BC Sophists first raised the question of man "Man is the measure of all things" Protagoras

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SOPHISTICS (V - the first half of the 4th centuries BC) did not represent a single circle of thinkers. "Sophists" is not the name of a certain philosophical direction or a particular philosophical school. The word "sophist", originally meaning a sage, craftsman, inventor, from the second half of the 5th century. BC. means a special type of professional philosopher, teacher of philosophy. Representatives: senior sophists (5th century BC) - Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Antiphon, Critias; junior sophists - Lycophron, Alkidamant, Trassimachus. Man and consciousness is the main problem of sophistry. The Sophists shifted the axis of philosophical research from nature to man: this is precisely their historical significance. The focus was on man and his psychology: the art of persuasion required knowledge of the logical forms of consciousness. The sophists proved their correctness with the help of sophisms - logical tricks, tricks, thanks to which the conclusion, at first glance, correct, turned out to be false in the end, and the interlocutor became confused in his own thoughts. The initial principle of the sophists: "Man is the measure of all things in that they exist, and in that they do not exist" (Protagoras). Hence the subjectivism in assessments and judgments, the denial of objective existence and attempts to prove that reality exists only in human thoughts. The theory of knowledge of the sophists is focused on a separate individual - the subject of knowledge (subjective idealism). Objective, true knowledge is unattainable (skepticism), and all knowledge is relative (relativism). Relativism in the theory of knowledge also serves as a justification for moral relativism: the sophists showed the conventionality of legal norms, state laws and moral assessments. The main provisions of the philosophy of the sophists

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Socratic period (mid-5th - late 4th centuries BC) Philosophical schools Philosophy of Socrates Socratic schools: Megarian school (Euclid of Megara, Eubulides, Stilpon, Diodorus Cronus) Elido-Eritrean school (Phelon, Menedemos, Asklepiades) Cynic School (Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinop, Crates) Cyrene School (Aristippus, Theodore, Hegesius, Annikerides) Philosophy of Plato Philosophy of Aristotle The goal of philosophy is the problem of man as a moral being; the problem is how one should live (Socrates). The main task of knowledge is self-knowledge: “know thyself”. Any knowledge is good, and any evil, vice is done from ignorance - the essence of Socrates' ethical rationalism. The object of knowledge can only be the general, comprehended through concepts. The common coincides with the one good, and by its very nature is immutable. Abstract supreme good - God, mind, life energy (megarians). Wisdom - in the knowledge of the good through the rejection of everything that makes a person dependent, hence the idea of ​​freedom outside of society and the preaching of unconditional naturalness, unconditional personal freedom (cynics). The object of knowledge can be a practically achievable good. The criterion of goodness is pleasure or pain. The purpose of life is to enjoy the present. The means to achieve happiness is freedom (Cyrenaic). Construction of metaphysical systems and synthesis of basic philosophical problems(Plato, Aristotle). Peculiarities

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Socrates (c.470-399 BC) ancient greek philosopher, teacher of Plato, the embodied ideal of a true sage in the historical memory of mankind "I know that I know nothing"

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Discussion Question Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge. Do you think that it is possible to become a moral person by learning all the rules of behavior and knowing well what is good and what is bad? Or is Socrates' statement not so unambiguous and implies a deeper understanding?

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Jacques-Louis David "The Death of Socrates" The main ideas of the philosophy of Socrates Inner world man is more important than nature. Knowledge begins with self-knowledge. Motto: "Know thyself"

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The main ideas of Socrates' philosophy The path to self-knowledge - reason Truth exists, the best way to find it is an honest argument (dialectics) Socrates called the ability to accept the truth maieutics Doubt is an important element of philosophy

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The main provisions of the philosophy of Socrates The central problem in philosophy is man and human consciousness. The nature and essence of man is his soul (mind). The soul is the "I am the conscious", i.e. conscience and intellectual and moral personality. Thanks to this discovery, a moral and intellectual tradition was created that nourishes Europe to this day. The main task of knowledge is self-knowledge: “know thyself”, knowledge of oneself as a “man in general”, i.e. as a moral, socially significant person. Cognition is the main goal and ability of a person, because in the process of cognition he comes to universally valid truths, to the knowledge of goodness and beauty, goodness and happiness. This is the purpose of philosophy. The ethics of Socrates identifies virtue with knowledge: 1) virtue (wisdom, justice, constancy, moderation) is always knowledge, vice is always ignorance; 2) no one sins consciously, and whoever does evil does it out of ignorance. This ethical rationalism of Socrates reduces the moral good to a fact of consciousness. The dialectic of Socrates coincides with the dialogue (dialogos), which consists of two moments: "refutation" ("irony") and "maieutics". The "Socratic" method is a method of consistently and systematically asked questions, with the goal of bringing the interlocutor to a contradiction with himself, to the recognition of his own ignorance. This is the essence of "irony", the essence of "maieutics" - through leading questions and logical techniques, bring the interlocutor to an independent finding of the truth. The task of the method is to find the “universal” in morality through “induction” (finding the general in the particular) and “determination” (establishing genera and species, their relationships). The main components of the "Socratic" method: "irony" and "maieutics" - in form, "induction" and "definition" - in content.

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Plato 427-347 BC Ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle, founder of his own school - the Academy, which existed for about 900 years

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* Plato (428 / 427- 348 / 347 BC) The structure of the world. 2. The doctrine of man. 3. The doctrine of knowledge. 4. Teaching - a utopia about an ideal state.

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General characteristics of Plato's philosophy Plato's philosophical system is the first complete synthetic concept, where all the components of ancient philosophy were considered through the prism of the doctrine of ideas: ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, philosophy of politics. The main thing in Plato's philosophy was the doctrine of ideas. There is a material world in which a person lives. But there is another world - uncreated and indestructible, i.e. eternal. This is the world of reason, pure forms and essences of things. This world, which is denoted by the concept of "being" is the "world of ideas". A separate thing is a material copy of the original idea (eidos). Material things are changeable and in time cease to exist; ideas are eternal and changeless. Ideas are the causes of things and the cause of the world as a whole, but they are not present in the world. They reside in the human soul. It is the soul that contains knowledge about ideas, since it lived in the world of ideas before entering the body. Therefore, ideas are known not through the senses, but through the "remembering" of the mind. The material world is known, the world of ideas is “remembered”. This determines the structure of the soul: the highest level is rational, from the height of which a person contemplates the eternal world of ideas and strives for the good, and the lowest is sensual, with the help of which he cognizes the world of things. The world of ideas is hierarchical. First of all, it is the idea of ​​the "common good" or "greater good". Further, these are ideas: human values ​​(wisdom, justice, good and evil), relationships (love, hate, power, statehood, etc.), properties of things, etc. The theory of ideas has a practical aspect - the substantiation of universal human principles and norms of being, because from the standpoint of the ideals of the "world of ideas" a person must evaluate the world around him. Such a system of philosophy is called metaphysical (not to be confused with the metaphysical method that arose in the 16th-17th centuries).

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The socio-political teaching of Plato in different versions is presented by him in three dialogues: "The State", "Politician", "Laws" and is entirely directed against ancient democracy. The doctrine of the state "Ideal state" (or approaching the ideal). Aristocracy is the just rule of a minority. aristocratic republic. aristocratic monarchy. Descending hierarchy of state forms. Timocracy is the unjust power of the majority, the power of the military, leaders, and armies. Oligarchy is the unjust rule of a minority. Democracy is the rule of the majority. Tyranny is the unjust power of one person. Classification of state forms according to Plato Plan of state structure according to Plato An ideal state is a community: farmers and artisans producing everything necessary to support the life of citizens; warriors guarding security; philosophers-rulers, exercising wise and fair government. Citizens of the state spend together free time. The institution of marriage is abolished (all wives and children are common). Slave labor is allowed and encouraged. Small private property and personal property for all classes are allowed.

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Plato's teachings Genesis Our world is not true - it is only a distorted shadow of the real world True being Plato calls the world of ideas Our world - the world of shadows - these are just copies, imperfect casts from ideas

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Main features Under the "ancient Eastern philosophy" understand the totality of religious and philosophical systems that existed in the VI - I centuries. BC. in the civilizations of Egypt, Babylon, China and India. The essential features of this philosophy, which distinguishes it among other philosophical systems, are: the blurring of the boundaries between philosophical and religious discourses; pronounced irrationalism; the priority of ontological problems over epistemological ones; introversion of thinking; lack of an anthropocentric perspective in cognition.

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Reasons for the uniqueness of Eastern culture Climate and geography. Traditionalism culture. The enormous role of religion in social and individual life. Features of anthropology and psychology of the people of the East. Peculiarities Eastern thinking: - it is more introverted than Western thinking; - it is more emotional-figurative than logical; - reason is understood more broadly than in the West: it is not so much a human ability as a cosmic force; - Anthropocentrism is not characteristic of Eastern thinking.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Religion and Philosophy in Ancient India The civilization of Ancient India was formed as a result of the synthesis of the culture of local peoples and the culture of newcomers from the North - the Aryans. It was the Aryan expansion that played an outstanding role in the development of philosophy and religion in India. Special features: * Rigid caste social structure. * Intellectual and religious passivity of people. * Introverted nature of religiosity * Priority of the irrational over the rational. There are three periods in the history of Indian philosophy: *Vedic (1500-500 BC). *Classical (500 BC - 1000 AD). *Hindu (since 1000 AD).

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Vedic period There are four collections of Vedas: - Rigveda, which includes 1028 hymns. - Samaveda containing religious prescriptions. - Yajurveda, consisting of White and Black Yajurveda. - Atharhaveda, containing more than 700 conspiracies for all occasions. The systematization and rationalization of the Vedic religion contributed to the emergence of Brahmanism, which is considered the dogmatic and cult basis of the subsequent traditional religious and philosophical systems of India.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Vedic period. Brahmanism. Brahman is understood as an abstract higher power, which is partly objectified, but for the most part remains invisible. Brahman is also the highest spiritual unity. Each individual soul - Atman - is a part of it. Atman is the same Brahman, but realized in the individual soul. Purusha is identical to Brahman and Atman - the highest spiritual principle, the highest soul, the grain of sand of which is the soul of the individual. And all of them are identical with "That" - the inexpressible supreme bliss. But the most complete expression of Brahman is "Om" - the concept by which the Brahman expresses his hopes for the comprehension of Brahman. The fundamental principles of Brahman are: * Space. * Movement. * Law.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Classical period This period is represented by teachings and schools that emerged as a reaction to the elitism and isolation of Brahmanism. The most significant of them are: Samkhya, yoga, Vedanta, Jainism and Buddhism. Sankhya was created at the turn of the 8th-6th centuries by the Indian thinker Kapila. In its center there are two actively interacting principles: prakriti (material principle) and purusha (spiritual principle). Yoga is a system of ways and means that allows the purusha to free herself from matter and achieve the state of moksha.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. The classical period of Vedanta is one of the most philosophically rich teachings. The main work of this system - the Vedanta Sutra - appeared in the II century BC. The focus of Vedanta is Brahman (That), which is the source of the entire fundamental world. He is one, indivisible, absolute. It is identical with Atman - a spark of Brahman in a single soul. Unlike Samkhya, Vedanta does not recognize the dualism of the world. Brahman is the only reality. Jainism. The design of this teaching is associated with the name of Mahavira Jina, who lived in the VI century BC. Jains aim to achieve the state of moksha, and for this they consider it necessary to free the soul from its bodily enslavement. At the same time, they consider material and karma. It is not easy to get rid of karma, and in order to do it, you need to follow the advice of your mentor, gain the necessary knowledge and develop certain norms of behavior. Having achieved the cessation of the influx of karma, the soul of a Jain seeking moksha will be able to gradually ensure the exhaustion and then the falling away of all other karma.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Classical period According to Buddhism, a person perceives the world as if through the prism of his sensations, however, these sensations are not his subjective reality, but are a consequence of the excitement of dharmas - particles of the universe. The essence of the Buddha's teaching: * Life is suffering. This suffering comes from the thirst for being, enjoyment, creation, power, and so on. To destroy this insatiable thirst, to give up desires, to renounce earthly vanity means to get rid of suffering. Beyond that lies total liberation, nirvana. Having originated in India, Buddhism did not take root there and spread outward, into South East Asia. But inside India, Buddhism, as well as Jainism, played an important role in the criticism of Brahmanism and paved the way for the emergence of Hinduism, the religion and philosophy of modern Hindus.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Hindu period The early period of Hinduism is represented in the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", which describes the origin of the world from "a cosmic egg generated by the force of heat in the primordial waters." The demiurge Brahma is born in it, who creates the Universe from the material of this egg. Having created the Universe, Brahma determines the flow of time, creates death to save the earth from overpopulation. Then Brahma creates the state and laws, divides people into estates, determines the order of marriage. As Hinduism develops, Brahma gives way to Vishnu, who is identified with the cosmic soul. The concept of Maya Vishnu is emerging. Maya is the inherent energy of Vishnu, materialized in the primordial waters from which the world arises. The universe is seen as an illusory manifestation of maya. Shiva symbolizes the unity of the ascetic and erotic principles. Although Shiva represents the function of destruction, this function has a creative aspect. In a world of continuous change, destruction precedes and conditions creation.

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PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA. Conclusions. Common to all the religious and philosophical systems of India are such features as an indifferent attitude to the material, the desire for a more favorable reincarnation after death, asceticism. In Indian philosophy there was no ontology and epistemology in the European sense. But, nevertheless, the above teachings and schools played an important role in Indian culture, served as a way of its self-identification.

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Philosophy of Ancient China According to ancient Chinese philosophers, the world emerged from chaos. It was argued that two spirits: yin (feminine) and yang (masculine) streamlined the formless chaos, thus giving rise to the world. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, a natural-philosophical concept was formed. The existence of a certain ether, consisting of material particles of qi, is assumed. As a result of the influence of the spirits of yin and yang on this ether, heavy, female particles are obtained - yin-qi and male, light particles - yang-qi. These particles give rise to the five principles from which everything that exists is formed: Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, Earth.

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Philosophy of Ancient China. In the philosophical views of ancient China, an idea of ​​Tao is formed. Tao is an impersonal world pattern that both nature and people obey. In the 6th-3rd centuries BC, significant changes took place in the life of China. Agriculture is developing at a high rate, the latest tools and tools are being used, private ownership of land appears, social struggle and wars between states begin. Ancient China included 24 principalities, but by the 1st millennium BC, there were 156 principalities in China. All these reasons influenced the ancient Chinese culture and philosophy, causing the struggle of various philosophical and political schools. Chinese philosophers were mainly concerned with the problem of achieving order in society. The most influential philosophical and political schools were followers of the following teachings: - Taoism - Confucianism - Mohism - Ming-chia - Fa-chia

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Philosophy of Ancient China. Taoism. The central concept of the teachings of Taoism is Tao - the universal pattern of the world, the fundamental principle and completion of everything that exists. Tao is eternal, nameless, incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible and endless in its movement. Tao is present in all material things and leads to changes in these things, turning things into their opposites. Taoism recognizes the independence of human actions. The cause of all adversity, the followers of Taoism believe, is a violation of the Tao. Therefore, in order to get rid of adversity, you need to give up everything that has been achieved. The teaching of Taoism tends to a fatalistic point of view: people should not oppose the action of the Tao, since their efforts can lead to the opposite, undesirable results. Reasonable behavior, according to Taoism, is the desire for calmness, for moderation. Taoism considers the concept of “non-action” (“non-intervention”) as the basis for the concept of management. Knowledge for the followers of the teachings of Tao does not matter, since they believe that the more a person knows, the further he goes from the true Tao.

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Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism. The founder of Confucianism is Kung Tzu (Confucius), who lived in the years 551-479 BC. Kung Tzu founded the idea of ​​"correcting names". This idea was to try to bring phenomena back to their former meanings. With all deviations from the norm, Confucius believed, one should definitely return to it. Confucius believed that the key to governing the people is in the strength of the moral example of superior citizens to inferior ones. Kung Tzu seeks to eliminate the following four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery, greed. Confucian philosophy emphasizes the idea of ​​zhong ("devotion") - the idea of ​​submission. The need to honor the ruler, parents and older brothers as younger ones was also emphasized. Confucius put forward the idea that people are inherently close to each other, that people have innate knowledge, which he considered "higher knowledge". Also, people have other kinds of knowledge gained through training and direct experience. On the importance of learning, Confucius says: “Learning and not thinking is a waste of time, thinking and not studying is ruinous.” He also believed that it was necessary to "study the old in order to learn the new."

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Philosophy of Ancient China. Moism. The founder of the philosophy of Mohism is Mo Di (Mo Tzu), who lived in 479-400 BC. Like Confucius, one of the main ideas of Mo-Tzu is the idea of ​​love for the sky. The will of heaven is universal love and mutual benefit. Mo-Tzu basically rejects the influence of fate on human life, showing the most vulnerable point of Confucian teaching: “Demanding people to learn and asserting that there is fate is the same as ordering a person to put their hair down and immediately knock off his hat” . Mo-Tzu, like Kun-Tzu, is close to the interests of the people. He argued that rulers should love the people and take care of them. Mo-Tzu and his supporters proposed a set of principles for human behavior: "reverence for wisdom", "reverence for unity", "universal love", "principle against attacks", "principle for saving income", "principle against music and entertainment" and so on. more... Mohists were the first to study the process of cognition. They opposed the teachings of Confucius on innate knowledge. The followers of Mo Tzu believed that a person does not have innate knowledge, but an innate ability to know. Mohists for the first time in Chinese philosophy singled out and gave definitions to philosophical categories: a thing, being and non-being, knowledge, mind, space and time, and many others ... For example, the definition of mind given by Mohists is as follows: “Mind is an understanding of the essence of things ". The later Mohists developed rules for the conduct of disputes.

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Philosophy of Ancient China. Ming-chia (school of names). This logico-sophistic school was formed in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. The idea of ​​the followers of Ming-jia was the following idea: Changes are taking place in society and the old "names" no longer correspond to the new content - "the names and essence of things begin to quarrel with each other." It was believed that obscene, dissolute speech leads to the loss of the meaning of the name (Yin Wen). Representatives of the school believed that concepts embrace the essential in things more deeply than sensory representations. The followers of the teachings of Ming-jia were engaged in the analysis of the meanings of concepts. But gradually the discussion about the meanings of concepts takes on a sophistical character. As a result, they come to the conclusion that it is impossible to achieve the truth.

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Philosophy of Ancient China. Fa-chia (Lehists). The legalist school was formed in the 4th century BC. The legists of Shang Yang, Han Fei-Tzu and others rejected methods of administration based on rituals and traditions, ridiculed human reasoning about philanthropy, duty, justice, brotherly love, and so on... Representatives of the fa-jia school in their judgments proceeded from the fact that man is inherently evil. The animal essence, originally inherent in a person, cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict unified laws. The Legists believed that for order in the state it is necessary: ​​To have a maximum of punishments and a minimum of rewards in the state To punish harshly, inspiring awe To punish severely for petty hooliganism, then there will be no conditions for major crimes To divide people by mutual suspicion, surveillance and denunciations This program was implemented by Emperor Qin Shi-Huang, who introduced uniform legislation, monetary units, writing, property and social gradation of the population, created a single military-bureaucratic apparatus.

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Philosophy ancient egypt and Babylon The first philosophical ideas began to take shape in Ancient Babylon and Ancient Egypt, where slave-owning societies were formed as early as 4-3 thousand BC and, therefore, it became possible for some people to engage in mental work. The origin of philosophical thought proceeded heterogeneously, under the influence of two powerful processes: - on the one hand, cosmogonic mythology; On the other hand, scientific knowledge. Features: 1. Philosophical thought included ideas about the material foundation of the world. As such, water was the source of all living beings. Often mentioned in ancient Egyptian monuments is the air that fills space and "abides in all things." 2. "Theogony" and "cosmogony" of Ancient Egypt. A large role was assigned to the luminaries, planets and stars. They played a role not only for calculating time and for predictions, but also as creating the world and constantly acting on it (the world) forces. 3. The origin in the philosophy of skepticism in relation to religious mythology.

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Philosophy of Ancient Egypt and Babylon. conclusions. Philosophical thought here (Egypt, Babylon) has not yet reached the level characteristic of the more developed countries of that time. Nevertheless, the views of the Egyptians had a significant impact on the subsequent development of science and philosophical thought.

Philosophy of antiquity

The presentation was prepared by the teacher of the Ridder Agrarian and Technical College Malon L.V.

• Life is suffering.
• The cause of suffering is desire.
• Getting rid of desires frees from suffering.
• There is a way out.

• Samsara is the doctrine of rebirth.

• Meditation is complete introspection, contemplative reflections.

• Nirvana is a state of bliss, nothingness.

Materialists of ancient India

LOKAYATA

• There is only the world that is perceived by the senses.

• The purpose of life is to care for the well-being of the present existence.

SANKHYA

• The world is material, consists of 5 primary elements.

• There are 3 sources of reliable knowledge:

• sense organs
• Intelligence
• Testimony of authorities

The world is constantly

rebirth.

birth can be achieved if the requirements are met:

• Renunciation of all material things
• No harm to the environment
• Possess qualities (peace of mind, moderation, detachment, patience, faith concentration)
• Longing for liberation
• Achievement of true knowledge
• Doing good deeds.

• "Let the ruler be the ruler, the minister the minister, the father the father, the son the son"

• "Noble Husband"
• - a person who observes etiquette, moral laws, kind and fair, respectful to elders and superiors "

• "What you don't want for yourself, don't do to others"

Tao is the law, the way of development.

A person must observe the principle of following the two Tao: Tao - the universe and Tao - man. Subject to the principle, even inaction leads to freedom, prosperity and success. If not observed, any action that contradicts the Tao leads to illness, misfortune, death.

• Being consists of matter and idea.

• Earth is the center of the universe.

• The soul is immortal.

• In an ideal world there are gods, ideas of things, immortal souls.

• The universe is finite. Everything has its reason and purpose.
• Nature is built on a hierarchical basis.

• Man is a social animal.

• Human virtues:

• - intelligent wisdom
• - practical wisdom
• - prudence
• -courage
• -moderation
• -generosity
• -truthfulness
• -friendliness
• -courtesy

• There are an infinite number of universes.

• Atoms are indivisible particles, moving in the void.

• The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in size.

• In some of them there is neither sun nor moon, in others the sun and moon are larger than ours, in the third there are not one, but several of them.

• In one place the worlds arise, in another they decline. They are destroyed by colliding with each other. Some of the worlds are devoid of animals, plants, and any kind of moisture.

• The distance between the worlds is not the same; in one place there are more worlds, in another - less.
• Some worlds are growing, others have reached full bloom, others are already shrinking.

• Man owes his birth to himself and his parents.

• Man is the result of biological evolution.

• There may be gods, but they cannot interfere in people's lives and earthly affairs in any way.

• The fate of man depends on himself, and not on the gods.

• The human soul dies with the body.

• Everything is in a state of constant change and struggle (war), one arises due to the destruction of the other and exists as a tense harmonious relationship of various opposites.

• The world is eternal. It is based on fire. The cooling of the fire gives rise to other "elements" and a variety of things.

Cosmos is an “eternally living fire”, and this physical side of its being allows it to descend each time from a pure state (world fire) to a state of connection with other elements (natural sensual life).

• Deserving contempt are those who,

as they say, neither to himself nor to another.

• Choose the lesser of evils.

• History is the teacher of life.

• Not knowing history means always being a child.

• How deep are the roots of stupidity!

Often a person has no other enemy than himself.

The good of the people is the highest law.

Truth defends itself.

To live is to think.

Answer the questions

• What are the characteristic features of the philosophy of the ancient world?

• Highlight the characteristic features of ancient philosophy?

• What are the similarities and differences between the philosophy of ancient India and China?

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One of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China, which outlined philosophical ideas, is the "I Ching" ("Book of Changes"). The name of this source has a deep meaning, the essence of which is an attempt to reflect the processes occurring in nature, including its celestial sphere with a natural system of stars. The heavenly nature (the world), together with the Sun and the Moon, in the process of its daily orbits, either rising or falling, creates all the diversity of the constantly changing heavenly world. Hence the name of the literary monument - “The Book of Changes”. Strictly speaking, the “Book of Changes” is not yet a philosophical work, but a kind of literary and poetic laboratory in which the transition from pre-philosophical and, to some extent, mythological ideas to proper philosophical thinking takes place. , and the collectivist tribal consciousness develops into personal philosophical views of completely wise people. The Book of Changes occupies a special place in the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought. The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, are Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC) and Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). e.). Although other thinkers also worked in ancient China, the philosophical legacy of Laozi and Confucius primarily gives a fairly objective idea of ​​the philosophical searches of ancient Chinese thinkers. Laozi's ideas are set forth in the book "Tao Te Ching", which was prepared for publication by his followers and appeared at the turn of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. e.

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The Book of Changes, the works of the thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of Ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation or a tree without roots - their contribution to one of the deepest philosophical systems in the world is so great. The philosophy of ancient China: Yin and Yang, as well as the eight trigrams formed from them - the basis of predictions according to the Book of Changes "I-Ching", that is, the "Book of Changes", is one of the earliest monuments of the philosophy of Ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of the variability of nature and human life as a result of a regular change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The sun and moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing heavenly world. Hence the name of the first work of the philosophy of Ancient China - "The Book of Changes". In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought, the "Book of Changes" occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every sage of the Celestial Empire tried to comment on and interpret the contents of the "Book of Changes". This commentary and research activity, which dragged on for centuries, laid the foundations of the philosophy of Ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development. The most prominent representatives of the philosophy of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and issues under study for two millennia ahead, are Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived in the period 5-6 Art. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, nevertheless, first of all, the legacy of these two people is considered the foundation of the philosophical searches of the Celestial Empire.

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The central concept that is considered in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning of the character "dao" in Chinese is "way", "road", but it can also be translated as "the root cause", "principle". "Tao" in Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. "Tao" is the non-material spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including man. With these words, Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao just by talking about It. And it is impossible to give a human name to that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of all that exists. Only one who has freed himself from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

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ConfuciusThe further formation and development of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with the activities of Confucius, perhaps the most prominent Chinese thinker, whose teachings still have millions of admirers and not only in China. The formation of Confucius as a thinker was largely facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: “The Book of Songs” (“Shijing”), “Books of Historical Traditions” (“Shujing”). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available to the general public. The great popularity of Confucius for many centuries to come was brought by substantial and numerous comments made by him to the "Book of Changes". Confucius' own views were set forth in the book "Conversations and Judgments" ("Lun Yu"), which was published by students and followers on the basis of his sayings and teachings. Confucius is the creator of the original ethical and political doctrine, some provisions of which have not lost their significance even today. The basic concepts of Confucianism, which form the foundation of this teaching, are “jen” (philanthropy, humanity) and “li”. "Ren" acts both as the foundation of the ethical-political doctrine and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of "jen": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to people." The means of gaining "ren" is the practical embodiment of "li". The criterion of applicability and acceptability of “whether” is “and” (duty, justice). “Li” (reverence, community norms, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules that regulate, in essence, all spheres of public life, from the family to state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups. Moral principles, social relations, problems of public administration are the main topics in the teachings of Confucius. As for the levels of knowledge, he makes the following gradation: “Higher knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to draw instructive lessons from difficulties. So, it can be argued with good reason that Laozi and Confucius, with their philosophical work, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.

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Philosophical ideas in ancient India begin to take shape around the 2nd millennium BC. e. Humanity does not know earlier examples. In our time, they have become known thanks to the ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name "Vedas", literally meaning knowledge, knowledge. The “Vedas” are original hymns, prayers, chants, spells, etc. They were written approximately in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Sanskrit. In the "Vedas" for the first time an attempt is made to approach the philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world surrounding a person, nevertheless they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

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A significant contribution to the development of philosophy in ancient India was made by Buddhism. The founder of Buddhism is considered Siddhartha Guatama, or Buddha (c. 583 - 483 BC). The name Siddhartha means “one who has reached the goal”, Gautama is a generic name. The search for a path leading to overcoming the suffering experienced by people became the main driving force behind Gautama's life. He renounces his throne and family and becomes a wandering ascetic. In the beginning, he turned to yogic meditation, which is the realization of the desire to find the divine beginning of the human personality through the discipline of body and mind. But this way of approaching God did not satisfy him. Then he passed the path of strict austerity. Gautama's penance was so severe that he was close to death. However, this path did not lead him to the goal. Finally, he sat down under a tree, facing the east, and determined not to leave that place until he had received enlightenment. On the night of the full moon, Gautama overcame the four stages of a meditative trance, was precisely aware of what was happening, and in the last watch of the night he gained enlightenment and became a Buddha, i.e. “Enlightened”. The Buddha saw the path leading to liberation from all suffering, i.e. to “nirvana “At thirty-five years old, he read his first sermon, which is called “The First Turning of the Wheel of Diarma”. The Buddha called his path the middle path, because he rejected both asceticism and hedonism, which presupposes the pursuit of pleasure, as one-sided extremes. In this sermon he proclaimed the "Four Noble Truths".

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The philosophy of ancient Greece is the greatest flowering of human genius. The ancient Greeks had the priority of creating philosophy as a science of the universal laws of the development of nature, society and thinking; as a system of ideas that explores the cognitive, value, ethical and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Philosophers such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato are the founders of philosophy as such. Originating in ancient Greece, philosophy formed a method that could be used in almost all areas of life. Greek philosophy cannot be understood without aesthetics - the theory of beauty and harmony. Ancient Greek aesthetics was part of undifferentiated knowledge. The beginnings of many sciences have not yet budded into independent branches from a single tree of human knowledge. Unlike the ancient Egyptians, who developed science in a practical aspect, the ancient Greeks preferred theory. Philosophy and philosophical approaches to solving any scientific problem underlie ancient Greek science. Therefore, it is impossible to single out scientists who dealt with "pure" scientific problems. In ancient Greece, all scientists were philosophers, thinkers and possessed knowledge of the main philosophical categories. The idea of ​​the beauty of the world runs through all ancient aesthetics. In the worldview of ancient Greek natural philosophers there is not a shadow of doubt about the objective existence of the world and the reality of its beauty. For the first natural philosophers, beauty is the universal harmony and beauty of the universe. In their teaching, the aesthetic and cosmological are united. The universe for the ancient Greek natural philosophers is the cosmos (the universe, peace, harmony, decoration, beauty, dress, order). The idea of ​​its harmony and beauty is included in the general picture of the world. Therefore, at first all sciences in ancient Greece were combined into one - cosmology.