In those days beauty individual person associated with correct proportions, the same principles were used in architecture and painting.
The Greek ideal of perfection was expressed in the term kalokagathia, where "kalos" is "beautiful" and "agathos" is "good".
For the first time in the history of science, the association “beautiful means good” appears, which can be considered the unconscious foundation of the judgments that people make on the basis of appearance.
In the IV century BC. Polycleitus created the statue, called the Canon, as it embodied the ideal proportions.
Later, as it is assumed, from the words of Vitruvius, the laws of ideal ratios, better known under the general term "rules of the golden section", were written down.
They were developed later in the works of both scientists and painters and sculptors.
culture Ancient Greece can be called "bodily": the beauty of the physique was highly revered, it could be achieved only with the help of gymnastics, exercises, education.
However, a beautiful body was not an end in itself, the achievement of the ideal was due to frankly pragmatic reasons, because a person with a strong trained body could be useful and successful on the battlefield.
If the attention of Pythagoras and his contemporaries is drawn to the harmony of the material, then Socrates and Plato are more interested in the relationship between the harmony of the material and the ideal.
The first philosophical treatises appear, considering the problems of the correlation of external and spiritual beauty, physical and moral ugliness.
In the philosophical system of Plato, a stable connection between material and ethical moments can be traced.
He wrote that the ugly is the lack of harmony and is the opposite of the nobility of the soul.
At the same time, one can also find in him the recognition that each thing has a certain degree of beauty (to the extent that it corresponds to a specific idea).
For the first time the so-called idea of the body is described in Plato's "Feast".
The genius of ancient times, Aristotle, in his writings comprehends the relationship between the soul and the body, a topic that up to this point has not been disclosed in such detail.
He is sure that the soul should rule over the body: “The soul rules over the body like a master, and the mind rules over our aspirations like a statesman.
From this it is clear how natural and useful it is for the body to be in subjection to the soul, and, conversely, what harm is obtained in an equal or inverse ratio.
The familiar opposition between the philosophical systems of the Stoics and the Epicureans manifests itself in the context of the study of the significance of the body in a very interesting way.
The Stoics (Zeno, Chrysippus), first of all, pay attention to human behavior. For them, the embodiment of the human body is a reflection of the lifestyle of the individual, his moral and ethical qualities.
Epicureanism (Epicurus, Lucretius) is known for the glorification of sensual pleasures, especially those of a material and bodily nature.
That is, the body acts as a source of satisfaction of the needs for sensual pleasure.
The history of the relationship to the body in ancient world can be traced not only philosophical teachings. The era of antiquity is the period of the birth of anatomy as a science of the structure of the human body.
The interest of scientists was turned both to understanding the significance of physical attractiveness, but also to the material mechanisms that determine it.
Alcmaeon of Croton is considered the first Greek anatomist, who laid the foundation for the preparation technique.
Outstanding doctors and anatomists of antiquity were also Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erazistrat.
However, the greatest fame and fame was gained by the Roman scientist Galen, whose teaching was dogmatized by the church in connection with the presentation of the foundations of anatomy in an idealistic spirit.
The activity of scientists anatomists, in principle, deprives the human body of any sacred meaning, allows you to study it from the outside and from the inside, understanding the basic patterns of functioning.
Against the background of the considered worldviews of the thinkers of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the works of the philosophers of the Ancient East look interesting.
IN philosophical traditions Ancient China, India and Japan there are no attempts to oppose the soul and the body.
The idea of the predominance of one over the other is opposed by the idea of holism: a certain integrity, even the inseparability of the body from the spirit, their mutually beneficial coexistence.
ancient india gave the world a whole system of educating the body and soul at the expense of each other - yoga.
In China, the attitude towards one's own body was associated with respect for parents, since it was given to the individual from the ancestors, it should be revered.
In the traditions of Buddhism, the idea of perceiving the "precious human body" is presented: "The human body in harmony with itself is more precious than the rarest pearl. Take care of your body, it is yours only now."
Thus, the human body is a subject of special interest exclusively for ancient anatomists, while for philosophers, the study of the body is a process that accompanies the solution of other problems.
However, it was at this time that the traditions of the philosophy of the body as a special knowledge about a person and the world were laid, the principles for assessing physical attractiveness were determined.
Antiquity (from Latin this word means "antiquity" - antiquus) is the era of two great civilizations - Ancient Greece and Rome.
Periodization of antiquity
Answering the question of what an ancient society is, you need to know in what era it existed and what periods this time was divided into.
The following periodization is generally accepted:
1. Early antiquity - the time of the birth of the Greek states.
2. Classical antiquity - the period of unity of Roman and Greek civilization.
3. Late Antiquity - the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire.
Considering the ancient society, one must take into account the fact that it is impossible to establish the exact time frame here. Greek civilization appeared before the Roman, and the Eastern existed for some time after the fall of the Western. It is believed that the era of antiquity is the time from the VIII century. BC e. according to the VI century. n. e., before the beginning of the Middle Ages.
The emergence of the first states
On the Balkan Peninsula in antiquity, there were several unsuccessful attempts to create states. It was a period of prehistory
2700-1400 BC e. - the time of the Minoan civilization. It existed in Crete and had a high level of development and culture. It was destroyed by a natural disaster (volcanic eruption that gave rise to a strong tsunami) and the Achaean Greeks who captured the island.
Around the 16th century BC. Mycenaean civilization arose in Greece. She dies in 1200-1100 BC. e. after the Dorians invaded. This time is also called the "Greek Dark Ages".
After the disappearance of the remains of the Mycenaean culture, the first period of antiquity begins. In time, it coincides with the end and formation of early class society.
The ancient Greek state was the primary civilization. It originates in the primitive system, and before it there was no previous experience of statehood. Therefore, ancient society experienced a strong influence of primitiveness. This manifested itself primarily in religious outlook. Man in this period was regarded as main feature antiquity - an active position in relation to the world.
Life in ancient society: structure and classes
The first Greek states developed very actively. This was facilitated by the struggle between the peasants and the nobility, when the latter tried to convert the former into debt slavery. In many other ancient civilizations, this was done, but not in the Greek. Here, the demos not only managed to defend its freedom, but also achieved some political rights. Of course, this does not mean that society in the ancient world did not know slavery. Both ancient Greece and later Rome were
What is an ancient society and what is its structure? Main public education ancient world was a polis, or city-state. Therefore, a society has developed here that is completely different from other countries. The community was its core. Everyone occupied his position in it. It was determined by the presence of civil status. The entire population was divided into three categories: full-fledged citizens, incomplete and disenfranchised. Civil status is the main achievement of ancient society. If in other countries the population lived within the strict limits of estates, then in Greece and Rome it was more important to have the status of a citizen. He allowed the demos to take part in the management of the policy on an equal footing with the nobility.
Roman society was somewhat different from Greek and had the following structure:
2. Free farmers and artisans. Columns were included in the same category of the population.
3. Merchants.
4. Military.
5. Slave owners. Here in the first place was the senatorial class.
Science and culture of ancient society
First scientific knowledge were obtained in ancient times, in the states of the East. This period is called pre-scientific. In the future, these teachings were developed in ancient Greece.
The science of ancient society is the appearance of the first scientific theories, basic concepts, treatises and communities. At this time, the formation and emergence of many modern sciences.
In its development, the science of antiquity has come a long way:
1. Early stage - VII-IV centuries. BC. This is the time of natural science and philosophy. The first scientists-philosophers were mainly interested in the problems of nature, as well as in the search for the fundamental principle of all living things.
2. Hellenic stage - it is characterized by the division of a single science into separate areas: logic, mathematics, physics, medicine. This time is considered the highest flowering of ancient science. Euclid, Aristotle, Archimedes, Democritus create their great works.
3. The Roman stage - the time of the decline of ancient science. Among the most important achievements of this period is the astronomy of Ptolemy.
The main success of the science of ancient times lies in the formation of separate directions, the creation of the first terminology and methods of cognition.
The philosophy of ancient society and its famous representatives
It arose in the 7th-5th centuries. BC e. in Greece and is divided into the following stages:
1. Naturphilosophy, or early classics. Philosophers of this time were primarily interested in questions of cosmology. Outstanding representatives: Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus.
2. Classics is the heyday of the time in which its most prominent representatives lived: Socrates, Plato, Euclid, Aristotle. Here, for the first time, questions of natural philosophy were replaced by an interest in the problem of good and evil, ethics.
3. Philosophy of Hellenism - at this time, active development begins philosophical thought under the influence of ancient Greek scholars. The most famous representatives: Seneca, Lucretius, Cicero, Plutarch. There are many directions of Epicureanism, Neoplatonism and Stoicism.
The influence of antiquity on modern culture
Ancient Greece and Rome are poetically called the cradle of modern civilization. Undoubtedly, ancient society had a tremendous impact on the development of other countries and peoples. Sciences, theater, sports, comedy, drama, sculpture - not to list everything that the ancient world gave modern man. This influence is still traced in the culture, life and language of many Romanesque peoples and inhabitants of the Mediterranean region.
1. ancient culture. The man of antiquity.
Antiquity
The ancient culture of the Mediterranean is considered one of the most important creations of mankind. limited by space(mainly the coast and islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas) and time (from the 2nd millennium BC to the first centuries of Christianity), ancient culture expanded the boundaries of historical existence, rightfully declaring itself to be of universal significance for architecture and sculpture, epic poetry and dramaturgy , natural science and philosophical knowledge.
The ancient Greek and Roman civilizations occupied territories located geographically close to each other, existed almost at the same time, so it is not surprising that they are closely related. Both civilizations had different cultures that evolved by interacting with each other.
Antiquity revealed to the world various forms of organization of the human community - political and social. Democracy was born in ancient Greece, opening up enormous humanistic possibilities for the free expression of will of full-fledged citizens, the combination of freedom and organized political action. Rome gave examples of a well-established republican system of life and government, and then of an empire - not only as a state, but as a special form of coexistence of many peoples with a special role of central power, as a state "pacification" of many tribes, languages, religions and lands. Rome revealed to the world the most important role of law and the regulation of all types of human relations and showed that without a perfect law there can be no normally existing society, that the law must guarantee the rights of a citizen and a person, and it is the business of the state to monitor compliance with the law.
Antiquity bequeathed to subsequent eras the maxim “man is the measure of all things” and showed what heights a free person can reach in art, knowledge, politics, state building, and finally, in the most important thing - in self-knowledge and self-improvement. Beautiful Greek statues have become the standard of beauty of the human body, Greek philosophy has become a model of the beauty of human thinking, and the best deeds of Roman heroes have become examples of the beauty of civic service and state building.
In the ancient world, a grandiose attempt was made to unite the West and the East with a single civilization, to overcome the disunity of peoples and traditions in a great cultural synthesis, which revealed how fruitful the interaction and interpenetration of cultures was. One of the results of this synthesis was the emergence of Christianity, which was born as the religion of a small community on the fringes of the Roman world and gradually became world religion.
Art
Unprecedented earlier in history, the feeling of a person as a free citizen (“ political being”) was reflected in artistic culture, art, led to their extraordinary rise and flourishing. The achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans are so grandiose that the entire history of world art is inconceivable without ancient plots, Greek and Roman mythology, ancient canons and samples.
Ancient art (5th-4th centuries BC) is rightly called a classic, as it was a role model in the embodiment of perfect beauty, where the virtue of the soul, the strength of the mind is completely merged with the beauty of the body. This could be most fully conveyed in sculpture. Plutarch drew attention to the importance of sculpture in the life of the Greeks, noting that there were more statues in Athens than living people.
Greek plastic reached its perfection in the work of the great Phidias, who created many beautiful creations, among which the famous statue of Olympian Zeus, made of ivory and gold, stood out. The majestic 14-meter statue of a formidable god sitting on a throne was the embodiment of wisdom and philanthropy. She was ranked among the seven "wonders of the world" and is known only from descriptions and images on ancient coins.
Among other sculptors who glorified ancient art, one should name: Praxiteles, who was the first in history to depict Aphrodite as a naked beautiful woman (Aphrodite of Cnidus); Lysippus, who left to posterity a beautiful portrait of Alexander the Great (also preserved in a Roman copy); Leochar, author of the legendary Apollo Belvedere.
Architecture
Along with sculpture, ancient architecture reached its peak, many of whose monuments, fortunately, have survived to this day. Great Parthenon, the ruins of the Colosseum impress with their beauty and grandeur even today.
The dominant principle of expediency, the clarity and courage of engineering thinking made it possible to satisfy both the everyday needs of a large population and the sophisticated aesthetic taste of aristocrats (their villas with parks and palaces were fabulously expensive). Etruscan traditions in architecture and the invention of concrete allowed the Romans to move from simple beam ceilings to arches, vaults and domes.
The Romans went down in history as outstanding builders. They erected monumental structures, even the ruins of which are still amazing. These include amphitheatres, circuses, stadiums, baths (public baths), palaces of emperors and nobility. In Rome, they built apartment buildings - insulas - 3-6, and sometimes 8 floors.
Roman temples with a rectangular shape and porticos resembled Greek ones, but unlike the latter, they were erected on high platforms with stairs (podiums). In Roman temple architecture, the type of rotunda was used, that is, a round temple. This was one of the oldest temples - the Temple of Vesta. The most significant achievement of Roman building technology was the temple of all the gods - the Pantheon in Rome. The dome of the Pantheon with a diameter of 43 m was considered the largest in the world.
Undoubtedly, the most grandiose Roman building is the building of the amphitheater - the Colosseum, which was an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m. The wall of the Colosseum had a height of 50 m and consisted of three tiers.
Even in the II century. BC e. Roman builders invented concrete, which contributed to the spread of arched-vaulted structures, which became characteristic element Roman architecture, such as triumphal arches - monuments of military and imperial glory. A number of arches - arcades were used in the construction of multi-tiered stone bridges, inside of which there were pipes supplying water to the city. Concrete was used to build the foundation of the Colosseum (1st century) with a depth of 5 m. Forts, bridges, aqueducts, port piers, and roads were built from concrete.
Theater
Among the various entertainments so loved in antiquity, the theater occupied a particularly important place in the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans - it performed various functions, including moral and ethical, educational, humanistic. Athens in the 5th century BC e., which became the center of literary, poetic creativity, tragedy and comedy flourished . Tragedy - a direct translation of "the song of the goats" - arises from a choral song sung by satyrs dressed in goat skins and depicting the constant companions of the god of wine Dionysus. It became the official form of creativity when the national holiday of the Great Dionysius was approved in Athens.
The most popular were the tragedies of the three greatest Athenian playwrights: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Each of them in his own way solved the problems of good and evil, fate and retribution, joy and compassion. Aristotle in "Poetics", defining tragedy, says that it "purifies such passions through compassion and fear", causes catharsis (purification).
The heyday of another genre - comedy is associated with the name of Aristotle. Plots for comedies were taken from the then political life Athens, in contrast to the tragedies, the plots of which were based on the mythological past. Artistic images, created by famous playwrights, are distinguished by the depth of psychological characteristics and excite many generations of viewers for centuries. Prometheus, Oedipus, Medea, Phaedra personify the legendary past of the ancient ages.
Literature
The development of ancient literature, which grew out of folklore, from heroic legends about the past, is closely connected with the ancient theater. The written period of ancient Greek literature begins with the poems of Homer and continues in the didactic epic of Hesiod (Theogony, Works and Days). One of the best Roman lyricists was Catullus, who dedicated many love poems to the famous beauty Clodia. However, the "golden age" for Roman poetry was the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). Three of the most famous Roman poets lived and worked in the "age of Augustus": Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Virgil's unfinished Aeneid glorified the greatness of Rome, the Roman spirit. Horace highly appreciated the appointment of the poet, which found expression in his famous "Monument", which was imitated by many poets, including A. S. Pushkin. The undoubted pinnacle of Roman love lyrics is the work of Ovid, which was embodied in such famous works as the poems "Metamorphoses", "The Science of Love", etc.
The teacher of Nero, the famous philosopher Seneca, made a significant contribution to the development of the tragic genre. It was this ancient tragedy that the playwrights of the New Age chose as a role model. The tragedies of Seneca are written in the spirit of the "new style": drawn out pathetic monologues, cumbersome metaphors and comparisons are intended more for the reader than for the viewer.
Olympic Games
The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games. , that Greece gave to the world. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776 BC. e. was the first time the name of the winner in the race was written on the marble board, and this year is considered the beginning historical period Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove of Altis. The place was chosen very well. All buildings, both early and later - temples, treasuries, a stadium, a hippodrome, were erected in a flat valley framed by soft hills covered with dense greenery. Nature in Olympia is, as it were, imbued with the spirit of peace and prosperity, which was established at the time of the Olympic Games. IN sacred grove thousands of spectators pitched their camp. But they came here not only for the sake of competitions, here they concluded trade deals, poets, speakers and scientists spoke to the audience with their new speeches and works, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to the audience. The state had the right to announce here new laws, treaties, and other important documents. Once every four years, a holiday was held, the equal of which antiquity did not know - a holiday of spiritual communication between the best minds and the most brilliant talents of Greece.
2. Formation of Ukrainian culture.
Influence of neighboring cultures on the culture of Ukraine
The cultural space of Ukraine since ancient times felt the influence of neighboring pre-state and state integrations. Slavic lands were subjected to constant attacks by nomadic tribes: Avars, Pechenegs, Khazars, Polovtsians. In the XII century, various tribes fell into dependence on Kievan Rus. Communicating with the Slavs, they were subjected to mutual cultural influences, often assimilated with the local population.
In the IX-X centuries. significant was the influence of Byzantium and the countries of the "Byzantine circle". Already ancient chronicles, chronicles, and other sources testify to the dynastic and spiritual contacts of Kievan Rus and with its neighboring European states. The fusion of Byzantine and Western traditions with the Kyiv cultural heritage became the basis for the formation of a kind of Ukrainian cultural identity.
In the 13th century, the Kiev state was threatened by the Mongol-Tatar conquerors (since 1239), German crusader knights, who in 1237 formed a powerful state by uniting the Livonian and Teutonic orders, Hungary, which since 1205 temporarily subjugated Ukrainian lands to its power, in particular, Transcarpathia; in the period from the 14th to the beginning of the 17th centuries, the colonization of the Lithuanian state began, which seized Volhynia, from 1362 the Kiev, Pereyaslav, Podolsk, Chernigov-Seversk lands, Poland, which extended its influence to Galicia and Western Volhynia, Moldova, which turned its eyes to Northern Bukovina and the Danube region , Crimean Khanate (zone of influence - the Northern Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov), the Turkish Empire.
In the 16th century, the process of mutual enrichment of Ukrainian culture with its dominant Cyrillic and Methodian tradition with cultural achievements continued. Catholic world Central and Western Europe. It was on the Ukrainian lands that the synthesis of two cultural traditions took place, the consequence of which was the formation of a new common type of culture for the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.
Since the second half of the 17th century, the Russian state has had the main influence on the development of the culture of Ukraine. In 1653, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich convened a Zemsky Sobor, which decided that in the name of the Orthodox faith and the holy church of God, the tsar should take the Ukrainians "under his high hand" .
Great Russian and Ukrainian, the two largest varieties among the Slavic tribes. historical destiny more than once brought them together, and in the first centuries of their historical life, the role of the architect, the leader in cultural and political life, the most important element in Eastern Europe was played by the Ukrainian people, but their belonging to a single ethnic consortium is undeniable
Influence of pre-Christian and Christian culture in Kievan Rus
Historical science testifies: in Kievan Rus, long before the adoption of Christianity, there was a high, original culture. There is no doubt that a century before the general official baptism of Rus', in 988, there were Christians of Russian and Varangian origin in Kiev, there was a cathedral church on Podil, “above the Ruchay”, there were retinue mounds in which dead soldiers were buried without obligatory pagan burning . And there were smart people. The naive idea of the complete savagery of the Slavs at the time of the baptism of Rus' corresponds to the church thesis “Paganism is darkness, Christianity is light”, but does not at all correspond to historical reality. For about a century and a half, Kievan Rus existed as a pagan power. The cities that emerged - the courts of princes of various ranks, from the tribal "any prince" to the "bright princes" of tribal unions (Drevlyans, Krivichi, etc.) to the Kiev Grand Duke, have long overcome primitiveness and have grown significantly stronger. The Russian military nobility paved the main routes to the south - to Byzantium, and to the west - to the German lands along the Upper Danube, and to the fabulous countries of the East. Long-distance trading expeditions enriched the Russians not only with silk, brocade, weapons, but also with knowledge, broadened their horizons, introduced them, to the best of their ability, to world culture. Russ were already known throughout the Old World, from France, in the West, to Afghanistan, in the East.
Byzantium brought in Kievan Rus Christianity and highly developed literature, art. The eradication of paganism and the planting of overseas Christianity will subsequently make it possible to create a powerful ideology, which gradually entered the everyday consciousness of people. Moreover, protected by the Slavic writing of Cyril and Methodius, the powerful sovereign ideology of Christianity formed in the image of the commandments of Christ the enduring ideals of goodness, spiritual purity, sincerity, faith in miracles and the apocalyptic torments of apostates in other world. Byzantium also had a significant influence on the formation of the ideology and worldview of the Slavic medieval elite. A powerful introduction into the everyday consciousness of the Slavs of an original, based on ideals Orthodox Christianity culture, directly influenced the formation of their mentality, and to such an extent that, if taken for comparison, they were ready to quickly submit to the Mongol tribes loyal to Orthodox faith than Western European powers whose culture was based on the values of the Catholic faith. In the future, this influenced the formation of a worldview different from the Western Slavic, but already as a causal factor. During the formation of the Ukrainian nationality, the traditions of spiritual interaction between peoples continued to deepen and enrich. They were preserved and developed primarily by such centers of spiritual culture as Orthodox monasteries; by the beginning of the 18th century, there were about 50 monasteries in Rus', including 17 in Kyiv alone.
Ukrainian way
If you ask the question of who we are - as a nation, as a people, as a state, we first need to formulate a problem. In short, it can be defined as follows: THE UKRAINIAN WAY.
If we look back at the process of formation of the modern Ukrainian nation, remember when and how it happened, and above all, who were the spiritual motivators and initiators of this work, then we inevitably return to the 30-40s of the 19th century. Moreover, it was a period not only of Ukrainian, but also of a pan-European national revival. As a climax in 1848-49, a number of national and democratic revolutions take place. That is why this era in the history of Europe is usually called the “spring of nations”. And Ukraine is no exception. Being then part of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, it wakes up, and at the same time on all lands - both in the western and in the east. In Kyiv, the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was formed, which operated until 1847 and was defeated by the tsarist autocratic machine. It did not even have time to fully mature as a political and organizational structure. But it gave Ukraine such outstanding figures as Taras Shevchenko, Nikolai Kostomarov, Panteleimon Kulish.
The brothers considered the national liberation as a component of the pan-Slavic movement, political - as the need to build a federation of equal peoples, outside imperial influences, and social - primarily as the abolition of serfdom, the introduction of general education, etc.
At the same time, in the views and work of Shevchenko, these ideas acquired the features of a new socio-political ideal. Its essence was expressed by calls for complete national and social liberation, for the construction of their own state - "in your own house, your own truth, strength, and will."
In Western Ukraine, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the harbingers of the "spring of peoples" were socio-political, spiritual and cultural figures from the group of pupils of the Lviv Theological Seminary "Russian Trinity" (Markian Shashkevich, Ivan Vagilevich, Yakov Golovatsky), who in 1837 year, the almanac "Mermaid Dnistrovaya" was released.
In 1848, the first Ukrainian organization, the Main Russian Rada, was created in Lviv, and the first Ukrainian newspaper, Zorya Galitskaya, began to be published.
main feature and the difference of the new national-democratic movement was the expansion of national demands from ethno-cultural and linguistic to social and political, which included
a republican structure, a constitution, the abolition of serfdom, civil rights, freedom of conscience, one's own press, etc.
Narodniks and Narodovtsy
The successors of the Cyril-Methodians in the east were populists and hromadas, and in the west - narodovtsy. The greatest merits of immigrants from the eastern, central and southern lands were the establishment of a Ukrainian printing house in St. Petersburg, the publication of the Osnova magazine there, the creation of mass communities in Kiev (more than 300 people), Poltava, Odessa, etc. centers of the national liberation struggle after the repressions of tsarism abroad.
The greatest figure of this period was Mikhail Drahomanov, who in his book "Historical Poland and Great Russian Democracy" (published in 1882) and a number of other works formulated a new platform for the Ukrainian liberation movement - taking as a basis democratic freedoms and the right of every people to an independent political life.
The Galician intellectuals-narodovtsy called themselves that, because they considered the main thing in their activity to be the connection with the people, defending their interests and rights. When the times of reaction came to the Dnieper region, they received Ukrainian public and political figures and writers.
New periodicals were opened in Galicia, the society "Prosvita" and the "Scientific Society named after Shevchenko" appeared, favorable conditions were created for the emergence of Ukrainian political parties.
So, just as a large river is obtained from many streams and tributaries, so the Ukrainian national liberation movement of the second half of the 19th century absorbed the ideas and experience of many Ukrainian communities, organizations and movements of the populist and democratic direction.
The main task of this movement by that time was the liberation of Ukraine from the yoke of empires and the creation of its own state. At the same time, many Ukrainian democrats, including their leader Mikhail Dragomanov and Ivan Franko, did not escape the influence of the ideological and political "epidemic" of the second half of the 19th century - socialism.
The first Ukrainian parties
At the turn of the 90s of the nineteenth century, political parties took over the baton of struggle for popular and democratic ideals. The idea of Ukraine's political independence was first put forward by the Russian-Ukrainian Radical Party, founded in 1890 in Galicia. It was headed by Ivan Franko, Mikhail Pavlik, Ostap Terletsky.
Having overcome the tangible socialist influence of Mikhail Drahomanov, this party, instead of the main goal - "collective organization of work and collective property", in 1895 announced the idea of state independence of Ukraine. In 1899, two more "spun off" from this party - the National Democratic and the Social Democratic.
Two years before that, a congress of communities had been held in Kyiv, which united into an all-Ukrainian non-partisan organization. In 1900, a group of Kharkov students led by Dmitry Antonovich announced the creation of the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP). Two years later, a group headed by Mykola Mikhnovsky separated from it, which created the Ukrainian People's Party, and in 1905 the RUP itself was renamed the Ukrainian Social Democratic Party.
Thus, at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, with the emergence of a number of political parties, the Ukrainian national movement is divided into three currents - people's democratic, national democratic and social democratic.
Despite some differences in social programs and the search for support in different segments of the population, they all remain true to the national idea, which the governing body of the Ukrainian National Democratic Party - the People's Committee - announced on Christmas Day in 1900 in its address as follows: “Our ideal should be an independent Rus-Ukraine, in which all parts of our nation would unite into one new cultural state.
(Under the "cultural state" was meant a state with a high level of culture in general and the culture of democracy in particular).
So, all the national parties prepared the ideological and political basis for an independent Ukrainian state. At the same time, their split over time led to a tragic political and military confrontation during the years of revolutionary liberation competitions and civil war.
Lessons from Liberation Competitions and the Soviet Experiment Both upsurges of the Ukrainian national liberation movement in the 1920s and 1940s failed, and their greatest achievement, the Ukrainian People's Republic, did not last long.
- the national liberation movement of Ukraine was not the only one, it failed to gather the majority of the Ukrainian people under its flag, did not unite its forces in the struggle for an independent state that would protect the interests of the people;
- the left wing of the national liberation movement (social democrats, socialist revolutionaries, Ukrainian socialists and communists) often put their class-social and party-international tasks above the interests of the Ukrainian people;
- the struggle for the realization of the primordial dreams of the Ukrainian people - about their own state and its democratic structure - was greatly complicated by two world military conflicts. And since Ukraine was a battlefield and was divided by military fronts, the national liberation forces had practically no opportunity to get at least
minimal assistance from European (mostly Western) democracies;
1. Antique culture. The man of antiquity.
Antiquity
The ancient culture of the Mediterranean is considered one of the most important creations of mankind. Limited by space (mainly the coast and islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas) and time (from the 2nd millennium BC to the first centuries of Christianity), ancient culture expanded the boundaries of historical existence, rightfully declaring itself to be the universal significance of architecture and sculpture, epic poetry and dramaturgy, natural science and philosophy.
The ancient Greek and Roman civilizations occupied territories located geographically close to each other, existed almost at the same time, so it is not surprising that they are closely related. Both civilizations had different cultures that developed by interacting with each other.
Antiquity revealed to the world various forms of organization of the human community - political and social. Democracy was born in ancient Greece, opening up enormous humanistic possibilities for the free expression of will of full-fledged citizens, the combination of freedom and organized political action. Rome gave examples of a well-established republican system of life and government, and then an empire - not only as a state, but as a special form of coexistence of many peoples with a special role of central power, as a state "pacification" of many tribes, languages, religions and lands. Rome revealed to the world the most important role of law and the regulation of all types of human relations and showed that without a perfect law there can be no normally existing society, that the law must guarantee the rights of a citizen and a person, and it is the business of the state to monitor compliance with the law.
Antiquity bequeathed to subsequent eras the maxim "man is the measure of all things" and showed what heights a free person can reach in art, knowledge, politics, state building, and finally, in the most important thing - in self-knowledge and self-improvement. Beautiful Greek statues have become the standard of beauty of the human body, Greek philosophy has become a model of the beauty of human thinking, and the best deeds of Roman heroes have become examples of the beauty of civic service and state building.
In the ancient world, a grandiose attempt was made to unite the West and the East with a single civilization, to overcome the disunity of peoples and traditions in a great cultural synthesis, which revealed how fruitful the interaction and interpenetration of cultures was. One result of this synthesis was the emergence of Christianity, which was born as the religion of a small community on the fringes of the Roman world and gradually developed into a world religion.
Art
The sensation of a person as a free citizen ("political being"), unprecedented earlier in history, was reflected in artistic culture, art, and led to their extraordinary rise and flourishing. The achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans are so grandiose that the entire history of world art is inconceivable without ancient plots, Greek and Roman mythology, ancient canons and samples.
Ancient art (5th-4th centuries BC) is rightly called a classic, as it was a role model in the embodiment of perfect beauty, where the virtue of the soul, the strength of the mind is completely merged with the beauty of the body. This could be most fully conveyed in sculpture. Plutarch drew attention to the importance of sculpture in the life of the Greeks, noting that there were more statues in Athens than living people.
Greek plastic reached its perfection in the work of the great Phidias, who created many beautiful creations, among which the famous statue of Olympian Zeus, made of ivory and gold, stood out. The majestic 14-meter statue of a formidable god sitting on a throne was the embodiment of wisdom and philanthropy. She was ranked among the seven "wonders of the world" and is known only from descriptions and images on ancient coins.
Among other sculptors who glorified ancient art, one should name: Praxiteles, who was the first in history to depict Aphrodite as a naked beautiful woman (Aphrodite of Cnidus); Lysippus, who left to posterity a beautiful portrait of Alexander the Great (also preserved in a Roman copy); Leochar, author of the legendary Apollo Belvedere.
Architecture
Along with sculpture, ancient architecture reached its peak, many of whose monuments, fortunately, have survived to this day. The Great Parthenon, the ruins of the Colosseum impress with their beauty and grandeur even today.
The dominant principle of expediency, the clarity and courage of engineering thinking made it possible to satisfy both the everyday needs of a large population and the sophisticated aesthetic taste of aristocrats (their villas with parks and palaces were fabulously expensive). Etruscan traditions in architecture and the invention of concrete allowed the Romans to move from simple beam ceilings to arches, vaults and domes.
The Romans went down in history as outstanding builders. They erected monumental structures, even the ruins of which are still amazing. These include amphitheatres, circuses, stadiums, baths (public baths), palaces of emperors and nobility. In Rome, they built apartment buildings - insulas - 3-6, and sometimes 8 floors.
Roman temples with a rectangular shape and porticos resembled Greek ones, but unlike the latter, they were erected on high platforms with stairs (podiums). In Roman temple architecture, the type of rotunda was used, that is, a round temple. This was one of the oldest temples - the Temple of Vesta. The most significant achievement of Roman building technology was the temple of all the gods - the Pantheon in Rome. The dome of the Pantheon with a diameter of 43 m was considered the largest in the world.
Undoubtedly, the most grandiose Roman building is the building of the amphitheater - the Colosseum, which was an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m. The wall of the Colosseum had a height of 50 m and consisted of three tiers.
Even in the II century. BC e. Roman builders invented concrete, which contributed to the spread of arched-vaulted structures, which became a characteristic element of Roman architecture, such as triumphal arches - monuments of military and imperial glory. A number of arches - arcades were used in the construction of multi-tiered stone bridges, inside of which there were pipes supplying water to the city. Concrete was used to build the foundation of the Colosseum (1st century) with a depth of 5 m. Forts, bridges, aqueducts, port piers, and roads were built from concrete.
Among the various entertainments so loved in antiquity, the theater occupied a particularly important place in the life of the ancient Greeks and Romans - it performed various functions, including moral and ethical, educational, humanistic. Athens in the 5th century BC e., which became the center of literary, poetic creativity, tragedy and comedy flourished. Tragedy - a direct translation of "the song of the goats" - arises from a choral song sung by satyrs dressed in goat skins and depicting the constant companions of the god of wine Dionysus. It became the official form of creativity when the national holiday of the Great Dionysius was approved in Athens.
The most popular were the tragedies of the three greatest Athenian playwrights: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Each of them in his own way solved the problems of good and evil, fate and retribution, joy and compassion. Aristotle in "Poetics", defining tragedy, says that it "purifies such passions through compassion and fear", causes catharsis (purification).
The heyday of another genre - comedy is associated with the name of Aristotle. Plots for comedies were taken from the then political life of Athens, in contrast to tragedies, the plots of which were based on the mythological past. Artistic images created by famous playwrights are distinguished by the depth of psychological characteristics and excite many generations of viewers for centuries. Prometheus, Oedipus, Medea, Phaedra personify the legendary past of the ancient ages.
Literature
The development of ancient literature, which grew out of folklore, from heroic legends about the past, is closely connected with the ancient theater. The written period of ancient Greek literature begins with the poems of Homer and continues in the didactic epic of Hesiod ("Theogony", "Works and Days"). One of the best Roman lyricists was Catullus, who dedicated many love poems to the famous beauty Clodia. However, the "golden age" for Roman poetry was the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD). In the "age of Augustus" lived and worked three of the most famous Roman poets: Virgil, Horace, Ovid. The unfinished "Aeneid" of Virgil glorified the greatness of Rome, the Roman spirit. Horace highly appreciated the appointment of the poet, which found expression in his famous "Monument", which was imitated by many poets, including A. S. Pushkin. The undoubted pinnacle of Roman love lyrics is the work of Ovid, which was embodied in such famous works as the poems "Metamorphoses", "The Science of Love", etc.
The teacher of Nero, the famous philosopher Seneca, made a significant contribution to the development of the tragic genre. It was this ancient tragedy that the playwrights of the New Age chose as a role model. The tragedies of Seneca are written in the spirit of the "new style": drawn out pathetic monologues, cumbersome metaphors and comparisons are intended more for the reader than for the viewer.
Olympic Games
The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games, which Greece presented to the world. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776 BC. e. It was the first time that the name of the winner in running was written on a marble plaque, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove of Altis. The place was chosen very well. All buildings, both early and later - temples, treasuries, a stadium, a hippodrome, were erected in a flat valley framed by soft hills covered with dense greenery. Nature in Olympia is, as it were, imbued with the spirit of peace and prosperity, which was established at the time of the Olympic Games. In the sacred grove, thousands of spectators pitched their camp. But they came here not only for the sake of competitions, trade deals were concluded here, poets, orators and scientists spoke to the audience with their new speeches and works, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to those present. The state had the right to announce here new laws, treaties, and other important documents. Once every four years, a holiday was held, the equal of which antiquity did not know - a holiday of spiritual communication between the best minds and the most brilliant talents of Greece.
It is the unity of two cultures of ancient Greek and ancient Roman. It distinguishes three main periods of archaic (7th - 6th centuries BC), classics (5th - 4th centuries BC) and Hellenism (3rd century BC - 4th century AD). e.). If in the era of archaism, ancient culture is going through a period of its formation, not yet having completed forms, then the era of early and mature classics is rightfully considered the "golden age" ancient art, ...
Creative self-realization was of great importance for the formation of ideas about culture. The method used by Hegel to create his philosophical system, became the basis for the subsequent professionalization of knowledge about culture. Hegel, like I. Newton once, perceived the universe as a harmonious order. But for him, the Universe was not a mechanism, but a complex organism that arose thanks to ...
The image of man in the era of antiquity and the Renaissance. (Common and difference). Lesson on MHK grade 10.
Lesson Form: lesson-research (through dialogue).
Target: students' understanding that the Renaissance is not a simple repetition of ancient traditions.
Tasks:
Identification of the differences between the portrait art of antiquity and the Renaissance.
The development of students' abilities to analyze works of art.
Lesson outline:
Formulation of a hypothesis.
Step-by-step analysis of the works of antiquity and the Renaissance through discussion with students:
A) identification of external features common to portraits of antiquity. Filling in the table;
B) Identification of features common to Renaissance portraits. Filling in the table;
C) Characteristics of the content content of works of ancient art and Renaissance art;
D) Summing up the results of the discussion by the teacher. Filling in the table.
The final part of the lesson (conclusion).
During the classes.
cultural center Renaissance is Italy, for which the term "Renaissance" had the original meaning - the revival of the traditions of ancient culture.
Let's put forward a hypothesis: the Renaissance is not a simple repetition of ancient traditions. The Renaissance is their new understanding.
Let's conduct a study, the purpose of which is to reveal the difference in the embodiment of the image of a person in the ancient art of the Renaissance.
Video sequence: 1. Leonardo da Vinci. "Portrait of Mona Lisa".
2.Raphael "Self-portrait".
3.Andrea del Sarto "Portrait of a young man."
Question: What do you notice in common in Renaissance portraits? (As a result of the discussion, the teacher formulates final version answer: in the portraits of the Renaissance, faces are always given in close-up. They are beautiful, sometimes with irregular features, but very individual.)
Video sequence:1. Lysippos. "Portrait of Alexander the Great".
The result of the discussion is formulated by the students: in antiquity there is a portrait genre, but it is rather not a portrait. this person, but an image of some human type. He is impersonal (impersonal).
Video sequence: 1. Polykleitos "Dorifor"
2. Praxiteles. "Hermes with the Infant Dionysus".
3. Phidias "Athena Parthenos".
Question: How can one characterize the harmony of ancient art? (after discussion, the final answer is formulated by the teacher: The harmony of ancient art is calm and contemplative).
Video sequence: 1. Michelangelo "David".
2. "Bound Prisoner".
3. "Mourning for Christ."
4. "Moses".
After the discussion: in the works of the Renaissance, the colossal will of man was expressed and realized, sometimes immeasurable, but demonstrating the possibility of independence and independence.
RENAISSANCE
ANTIQUITY
1. Face portraits are always close-ups, they are beautiful, sometimes with irregular features, but very individual.
1. There is a portrait genre, but this is rather not a portrait of a given person, but an image of a certain human type. He is impersonal.
2. A colossal will was expressed and realized in the works, sometimes excessive, but demonstrating the possibility of independence and independence.
2. Harmony is calm and contemplative.
3. Elevation of individuality.
Thus, we see that for antiquity and the Renaissance, the image of man plays an important role. This is the basis of their commonality, but the Renaissance refers to man as an independent being, with free will and therefore entitled to individuality. In antiquity, a person feels himself to be only a particle of the Universe, depending on the gods, external forces.
Homework:
Based on the table, make a description of one of the works of art of antiquity or the Renaissance presented at the lesson.
Take notes on your own general information about the art of the Proto-Renaissance, using the Encyclopedia of Art or other sources.
Questions to the topic:
What is the originality of portraits of the era of antiquity?
What are the features of the portrait art of the Renaissance?
What is common and what is the difference between the attitude towards a person in the era of antiquity and in the era of the Renaissance?
