When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background on which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there has been, as it were, an interweaving of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic Western European and Eastern, Byzantine, included in Russian self-consciousness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.
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Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3
1. Stages of development of Russian philosophy…………………………………………….5
2.Main directions philosophical thought in Russian Philosophy……………………………………………………………………………7
2.1 Slavophiles and Westernizers…………………………………………………………7
2.2 Materialism in Russian philosophy of the mid-19th century………………………8
2.3 Russian pochvennichestvo……………………………………………………...9
2.4 Russian conservatism………………………………………………………...9
2.5 Russian cosmism……………………………………………………………..10
2.6 Philosophy of unity Vladimir Solovyov…………………………...11
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 17
References…………………………………………………………………19
Introduction
When characterizing the features of the development of philosophical thought in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to take into account the conditions of its existence, which, in comparison with Western European ones, were extremely unfavorable. At a time when Kant, Schelling, Hegel and other thinkers expounded their philosophical systems in German universities, in Russia the teaching of philosophy was under the strictest state control, which did not allow any philosophical freethinking for purely political reasons. The attitude of state power to philosophy is clearly expressed in the well-known statement of the trustee educational institutions Prince Shirinsky-Shikhmatov "The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible."
On the one hand, the formation of Russian philosophy took place in the course of searches and answers to those questions that Russian reality itself posed, therefore it is difficult to find a thinker in the history of Russian philosophy who would be engaged in pure theorism and would not respond to burning problems.
On the other hand, these same conditions led to such an abnormal state for philosophy itself, when, upon perception philosophical teachings political attitudes acquired a dominant role, and these teachings themselves were evaluated primarily from the point of view of their "progressiveness" or "reactionary", "usefulness" or "uselessness" for solving social problems. Therefore, those teachings that, although they did not differ in philosophical depth, but answered the topic of the day, were widely known.
When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background on which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there has been, as it were, an interweaving of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic Western European and Eastern, Byzantine, included in Russian self-consciousness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.
1. Stages of development of Russian philosophy
Russian philosophy has come a long way in its development, in which the following stages can be distinguished:
1. XI century. - first half of the 18th century - staging philosophical problems and the search for answers to them within the framework of other forms of social consciousness, primarily religious and aesthetic (Illarion, Andrey Rublev, Feofan Grek, etc.).
2. Second half of the 18th century - first quarter of the 19th century - the spread of philosophy in Russia in the form philosophical reflection science and culture of his time, which was not without a certain imitation of the Western European currents of philosophical thought.
3. Second quarter of the 19th century - beginning of XX century. - formation and development of original Russian philosophy.
4. after 1922 - the philosophy of the Russian diaspora.
So let's take a closer look at each of the stages in more detail.
Philosophical thought in Russia begins to emerge in the 11th century. influenced by the process of Christianization. At this time, Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev created the famous "Sermon on Law and Grace", in which he develops a theological and historical concept that justifies the inclusion of the "Russian land" in the global process of the triumph of divine light. The further development of Russian philosophical thought took place in line with the development of moral and practical instructions and the rationale for the special purpose of the Orthodoxy of Rus' for the development of world civilization. The most characteristic in this sense is the teaching of the abbot of the Eliazar Monastery Philotheus, created during the reign of Vasily III, about "Moscow as the third Rome."
The original search for Russian philosophical thought continued throughout the 16th-18th centuries. These searches took place in an atmosphere of confrontation between two tendencies. The first focused on the originality of Russian thought and connected this originality with the unique originality of Russian spiritual life. The second trend expressed the desire to include Russia in the process of development of European culture. Representatives of this trend believed that since Russia embarked on the path of development later than other European countries, it should learn from the West and follow the same historical path.
The third stage falls on the second half of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. At this time, the spread of philosophy in Russia in the form of a philosophical understanding of the science and culture of its time is characteristic, which was not without a certain imitation of Western European currents of philosophical thought.
2. The main directions of philosophical thought in Russian philosophy
2.1 Slavophiles and Westernizers
In general, the formation of original Russian philosophy began with the formulation and comprehension of the question of the historical fate of Russia. In a tense controversy of the late 30s. XIX century about the place of Russia in world history, Slavophilism and Westernism took shape as opposite currents of Russian philosophical thought.
The main problem around which the discussion began can be formulated as follows: is the historical path of Russia the same as the path of Western Europe, and the peculiarity of Russia lies only in its backwardness, or does Russia have a special path and its culture belongs to a different type ? In search of an answer to this question, alternative concepts of Russian history have developed.
The Slavophiles, in their interpretation of Russian history, proceeded from Orthodoxy as the beginning of all Russian national life, emphasized the original nature of the development of Russia, while the Westerners based themselves on the ideas of the European Enlightenment with its cult of reason and progress, and considered inevitable for Russia the same historical paths by which passed Western Europe.
The leaders were Alexei Stepanovich Khomyakov (1804-1860), Ivan Vasilyevich Kireevsky (1806-1856), Konstantin Sergeevich Aksakov (1817-1860), Yuri Fedorovich Samarin (1819-1876) - they came up with the rationale for the original path of development of Russia.
The study of history among the Slavophiles was aimed at finding stable factors influencing the historical process. Such factors, according to the Slavophils, could not be either natural and climatic conditions, or a strong personality, but only the people themselves as "the only and constant agent in history. The Slavophils believed that economic, political and other factors are secondary and are themselves determined by a deeper factor - faith, which determines the historical activity of peoples. People and faith are correlated in such a way that not only faith creates a people, but also a people creates faith. Orthodoxy in the concept of the Slavophils acted as the spiritual basis of all Russian life: ". penetrating into all the mental and moral convictions of people, it invisibly led the state to the realization of the highest Christian principles, never interfering with its development. "In the history of Russia, the spiritual values of Orthodoxy have merged with the life of the people.
The greatest merit of the Slavophils is that they began to consider the nation as a spiritual phenomenon.
The influence of the Slavophiles on Russian thought was unusually strong. In the new historical conditions in post-reform Russia, the pochvenism acted as a direct continuation of Slavophilism.
As an ideological trend in the social "thought of Westernism, it was not uniform and homogeneous. Among the Westerners, which include Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (1794-1856), Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870), Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky (1811-1848), and others were thinkers of the most equal convictions, including liberals, radicals, conservatives.
2.2 Materialism in Russian philosophy of the middle of the XIX century.
In the 40s of the XIX century. the materialistic trend in Russian philosophy was represented primarily by the works of Herzen. Like most Russian revolutionary democrats, Herzen in his spiritual development went through a difficult path of searching - from a deep passion for Hegel's philosophy to Feuerbach's materialism.
In the 60s. these same ideas received their further substantiation in the works of D.I. Pisarev. Also at this time, new forces began to enter the arena of public life, the most active of which was the raznochintsy intelligentsia. Its recognized leader was Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov (1836-1861). Their worldview and ideals were of a pronounced revolutionary-democratic character. They were in sharp opposition to the government, fought for the liberation of the individual against the power of society, while relying on materialism and science.
2.3 Russian soil
As already mentioned, a direct continuation of Slavophilism in the 60-80s. In the 19th century there was pochvennichestvo, represented by the works of Apollon Aleksandrovich Grigoriev (1822-1864), Nikol Nikolayevich Strakhov (1828-1896), Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885), Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881).
Pochvennichestvo, according to Grigoriev's definition, was characterized by "restoration in the soul of a new, or rather, renewed, believe in the soil, in the soil, in the" people ". Faith in the people, in development on their own soil was combined with views on history as a spontaneous organic process, fundamentally not amenable to rationalization.
In the middle of the 19th century, ideas about the uniqueness of each society and its culture, their irreducibility to any single model were literally in the air, as evidenced by the development of these ideas in Western European and Russian socio-philosophical thought. In general, for the first time the idea that Western Europe and Russia belong to different types of cultures was expressed by M.P. Pogodin. He considered Europe as the heir of the culture of the Western Roman Empire, and Russia - as the heir to the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium.
2.4 Russian conservatism
Before embarking on a concrete examination of Russian conservatism, it is necessary first to identify the content that is invested in the concept of "conservatism". In this case, conservatism will be understood as socio-philosophical concepts that justify the need to preserve and maintain the historically established forms of state and public life, its moral, legal, religious and family foundations.
The ideology of Russian conservatism is most succinctly expressed in the formula of Count S.G. Uvarov "Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality", at the journalistic level was substantiated by Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov (1818-1887), at the philosophical level by Konstantin Nikolayevich Leontiev (1831-1891) and gave a detailed theoretical justification for autocratic power as the only possible and highest form of state power in Russia . In their opinion, only autocratic power ensures the integrity and stability of Russia.
2.5 Russian cosmism
One of the most original trends in Russian philosophical thought of the late 19th - early 20th centuries is the so-called cosmic philosophy, or as it is more often called Russian cosmism.
Let us try to formulate the essence of this trend in a few phrases. Russian cosmism is the doctrine of the inseparable unity of man and the cosmos, of the cosmic nature of man and his limitless possibilities for space exploration. The problems of Russian cosmism were actively dealt with by such thinkers as N.F. Fedorov, V.S. Solovyov, N.A. Naumov, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, P.A. Florensky, V.I. Vernadsky, L. Chizhevsky. All of them are outstanding scientists, the pride of our fatherland.
The teaching of the Russian cosmists had a fruitful influence on the subsequent development of philosophy and the natural sciences, and this teaching has its adherents even today. Yes, in last years"Fedorov Readings" began to be held. There are, although not numerous, associations "Prometheus" and "Federation of the Common Cause". And if ideas live and have their faithful supporters, then they are not the property of only the history of philosophical thought.
2.6 Philosophy of unity Vladimir Solovyov
Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900) created his own religious-idealistic system. The scope and versatility of Solovyov's interests can be judged from his numerous works.
He sets out the main provisions of his philosophy in his first works: the dissertation "The Crisis of Western Philosophy" and his doctoral dissertation "Criticism of Abstract Principles". Solovyov expounds the ontology and epistemology of total unity mainly in his Philosophical Principles. whole knowledge", as well as in the work "The First Principle of Creative Philosophy".
Philosophy and science (according to Solovyov, they have their value in unity, with religious faith: knowledge about the real world is given by science, about the ideal world - by philosophy, about God - only by faith. Whole knowledge, according to Solovyov, acts as a synthesis of science, philosophy and faith. But Solovyov put faith above reason, only in religious faith he saw: higher, unifying type of knowledge.
Solovyov had many-sided hobbies - Christian philosophy, Buddhism, Neoplatonism. He was interested in the philosophical constructions of Kant, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, the philosophical ideas of Chaadaev, the Slavophiles, and others. He was aware of scientific discoveries.
Combining all the diversity of life in his philosophy of unity, he uniquely interpreted evolutionary theory Darwin. For him, the world in its development goes through two stages: the first (before man) is the evolution of nature, the second (human activity) is history. end result development of the world is the establishment of the Kingdom of God, the reunification of the world with its creator - God, i.e. restoration of unity.
The religious-idealistic ideas of Solovyov were accepted by Berdyaev, Bulgakov, Karsavin, Lopatin, Frank, and other Russian thinkers. But in Russia, Solovyov's philosophy: found understanding only in a narrow circle of the intelligentsia, the church and official authorities treated it negatively. The reigning Alexander III recognized Solovyov as "the purest psychopath".
There is no unequivocal, but apparently, and there can be no relation to the philosophical constructions of Solovyov in our time. Noting the originality of the philosophical system of Solovyov, its originality, the researchers express different attitude to it depending on their social positions.
The Russian philosophical Renaissance, or the Renaissance of Russian religious-idealistic philosophy at the beginning of this century, was based on two main ideological sources, on the previous development of world philosophy and culture, on the one hand, and on the other, on the long process of development of domestic philosophical thought. Being closely connected with the line of development of national philosophy, Russian religious-idealistic philosophy of the early 20th century, as it were, followed the path of Slavophilism. However, she differed from him in her positive assessment of his contemporary quest for Western philosophical thought. Representatives of this trend, their works, despite the inherent features of their time, are of enduring interest, I mean cognitive. This Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov (1856-1919) was an eminently original philosopher. According to Gorky, Rozanov was a man of genius, a wonderful thinker and an excellent writer.
Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) was the most prominent personality in Russian philosophy of the 20th century. For the West, where he lived a significant part of his life, he became the main exponent of the spirit of the Russian religious Renaissance. Berdyaev had an exceptional gift for synthesizing various philosophical ideas. His work is the result of a wide variety of influences; Dostoevsky, Solovyov, Kant, Marx, medieval mystics. Constant attention to other people's ideas was combined with such a gift for synthesis that in his work other people's ideas, being digested in their own cauldron, took on a special "Berdyaev" connotation.
Lev Shestov (1866-1938) was born in Kyiv. He spent most of his life abroad in Switzerland and in France Shestov is distinguished by an exceptional literary talent. He writes not only with a rare simplicity for a philosopher, but also in a fascinating way. His main desire is to establish a religious philosophy based on faith. Biblical philosophy, Shestov believed, is much deeper and more penetrating modern philosophy. He was one of the brightest representatives of Russian existential philosophy, investigating the problems of human existence.
The concept of unity, which was initiated by V. Solovyov, was further developed in the corpses of his followers, primarily Florensky (1882-1937). Another major successor of Solovyov's ideas was S.A. Bulgakov (1871-1944). Also a famous follower of Solovyov's philosophy was S.L. Frank (1877-1950).
Among the thinkers who began their creative activity in the conditions of the "silver" century of Russian culture, Nikolai Onufrievich Lossky (1870-1965) has a prominent place.
Lossky's philosophical evolution is determined by a gradual but continuous movement from abstract and epistemological intuitionism to intuitive ontology and religious ideals. The last decades of his life M. V. Lossky is a religious (Orthodox) thinker, the object of philosophical interest of which is spiritual values, permeated with the ideas of the transcendent.
The philosophical heritage of Lossky, like that of Berdyaev, is very large. His main works are: "Basic teachings of psychology from the point of view of voluntarism" (1903), "The world as a limited whole" (1917), "Basic questions of epistemology (collection of articles)" (1919), "Logic" (1923). "Collection of Problems from Logic" (1924), "Justifications of Intuitionism" (1924), "Free Will" (1927), "Conditions for Absolute Good (Fundamentals of Ethics)" (1931), " Dialectical materialism in the USSR" (1934), "Sensitive, intellectual and mystical intuition" (1938), "History of Russian philosophy" (1951), "Dostoevsky and his Christian worldview" (1953), etc.
Lossky saw the main task of philosophy in constructing a theory about the world as a whole. He calls his theory of knowledge intuitionism. With this word, he called the doctrine that a cognized object, even if it is part of the external world, is directly included by the consciousness of the subject in a person and is considered as existing independently of the act of cognition. This kind of contemplation of other entities, such as they are in themselves, is possible because the world is a certain organic whole, and the cognizable object, the individual human "I" is a timeless and beyond space being, which is closely connected with the whole world. The relationship of the subject to other entities in the world, which makes intuition possible, Lossky calls epistemological coordination.
According to the theory of intuition, Lossky believes, the sensitive qualities of an object - colors, sounds, warmth, etc. - are transsubjective, in other words, belong to the real objects of the external world. They are considered as rational and subjective qualities by followers of the causal-hereditary theory of perception, according to which the stimulation of the sense organs by light rays, air waves, and therefore similar factors is the cause that creates the content of perception.
Following Bergson, Lossky believes that memory is the subject's direct contemplation of the past. So, he notes, illusions and hallucinations can be interpreted as a subjective synthesis in the transsubjective data of past experience.
Lossky uses the term "ideal being" in the meaning given to him by Plato. He believed that this being has neither a spatial nor a temporal character. It includes in its content general concepts such relations as, for example, the connection between quality and its carrier, quantitative forms and relations (number, unity). Phenomena and forms that exist in space and time, Lossky calls real being. Real being, he believed, can arise and have a systematized character only on the basis of ideal being. In order to draw attention to the peculiarities of his understanding of being, Lossky calls his theory ideal realism. He believed that, in addition to the ideal and real being, there is also a metalogical being, that is, a being that goes beyond the laws of logic. Ideal being is an object of intellectual intuition (contemplation). It is considered directly, since it is in the subject itself. This leads to the conclusion that discursive thinking is not an objection to intuition, but a variation of it. Metalogical being is the object of mystical intuition.
The basis of the world, Lossky emphasized, is the principle that is outside the world, on the other side of it. This principle is incomparable with the world. It is not the mind, because it is outside the mind, it is not personal, because it is outside the personality. Even the term "absolute" does not express the essence of this principle, since the Absolute correlates with relative, cosmic being. In other words, the principle in question is wholly free from the world. The world cannot exist without this principle, but this principle exists outside the world. In religious experience, God reveals himself not only as the absolute fullness of being, but also as the highest, absolutely perfect value, as a good or, more precisely, the highest good, namely: beauty, love, integrity, truth.
The values of life are leveled when a person shows selfishness. Some people on the path to perfection strive for the absolute fullness of being, moreover, for the blessings of the whole world, they try to achieve their goal and rise above other creatures and even the Lord God, believing that they can put the world in order better than the Creator did. Pursuing an unattainable goal, at every step they suffer a defeat that will cause them anger and hatred of God. Selfishness, pride alienate us from God, devalue us as a person and person. The creative forces of an egoist person gradually fade away if it opposes God, if its whole harmoniously does not coincide with God's will and foundations, which are expressed in the moral prescriptions of the Bible.
Lossky's philosophy was the apogee of Russian philosophy in the diaspora. Although it yielded to the authority of Berdyaev and Shestov, it creatively deepened and expanded all those key problems that were raised in Western European intuitionism and personalism, thereby certifying the high level of Russian philosophical thought in the world philosophical process.
Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European philosophy, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them, were of a deeply rational nature. The well-known historian of Russian philosophical thought Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In the 19th century Russia has entered the path of independent philosophical thought. Further, he notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although it has a strong religious beginning) and not cosmocentric (although it is alien to natural philosophical searches), but, first of all, anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: "it is more occupied with the theme of man, of his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. The same features of Russian philosophical thought were also noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as Vvedensky, Berdyaev, and others.
Conclusion.
Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of trends and schools, in solving philosophical problems it was dominated by a creative and active character, a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to historical destinies Russia, to the place of the Russian people in the family of European peoples. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.
Bibliography
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4. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: Textbook. 3rd ed., revised. and additional M.: TK Velby, Prospect Publishing House, 2004. 608 p.
5. Golubintsev V.O., Dantsev A.A., Lyubchenko V.S. Philosophy for technical universities. Series " Higher education» Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 2004 640 p.
6. Krapivensky S.E. social philosophy: Proc. for stud. humanit.-social. specialist. institutions of higher education. 4th ed., Theor. M.: Humanit. ed. Center VLADOS, 2003. 416 p.
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30 Pantheism - religious and philosophical teachings that identify God and the world whole. Pantheistic tendencies appear in medieval heretical mysticism.- 139
31 With these words, A. I. Herzen defines a view that denies the unity and internal regularity in the development of phenomena, including the development of science. The expression "materialism in history" used in this sense should not, of course, be confused with the materialist conception of history.
32 Tao(Tao) - one of the most important concepts of Chinese philosophy, the central concept of Taoism; means the invisible omnipresent natural law of nature, human society, behavior and thinking of an individual, inseparable from the material world and governing it. Tao is the natural way of the emergence, development and disappearance of all things and at the same time the material basis of their existence.- 167
33 Veda are a chain source of ancient Indian speculation. Their oldest part is made up of four Vedas, the first of which is hymns (“Rigveda”). - 167
34 Brahmins And chandala - high and low castes in India.- 167
35 Upanishads- ancient Indian works of a religious and philosophical nature, adjoining the Vedas as an explanation of their secret inner meaning.- 167
36 Sophists - conventional designation of a group of ancient Greek thinkers of the 5th - 4th centuries BC. - 169
37 Spiritualism- a view that considers the spirit as the fundamental principle of reality, as a special incorporeal substance that exists outside of history and independently of it.- 174
38 Voluntarism - idealistic direction in philosophy, considering the will as the highest principle of being.
personalism- the doctrine proceeding from philosophical understanding of the person.
Impersonalism - exclusion from the philosophizing of the personalist tradition.
Anthropologism - a philosophical concept, whose representatives see the main worldview category in the concept of "man" and argue that only through it can a system of ideas about nature, society and thinking be developed.
Cosmism - the doctrine of the unity and interconnection of the cosmos. - 175
39 Empiricism - direction in the theory of knowledge, recognizing sensory experience as a source of knowledge and considering that the content of knowledge can be presented either as a description of this experience, or reduced to it.- 180
Section Two
BEING. MATTER. NATURE
1. Being and matter
1 The term "nature" is used here in the sense of an element, an element.- 184
2 lit. "musical". This term, which was close in meaning to the word "educated", Aristotle resorts to designate the category of qualities. In this case, he wants to say that Socrates does not become in general, does not arise, but becomes different, that is, undergoes a qualitative change.- 184
3 Oceanus and Tethys - the parents of Oceania (sea deities).- 184
4 The term "homoemeria" (homogeneous particles) Aristotle uses to denote what Anaxagoras called the seeds of things, by which he meant the innumerable unarisen, imperishable and unchanging bodies with a homogeneous structure corresponding to a certain quality underlying everything.- 185
5 Modus- a term denoting a property of an object that is inherent only to it in certain states, in contrast to an attribute - an integral property of an object.
Substance objective reality viewed from the side of its internal unity.- 206
6 Asymptote- a curve with an infinite branch, to which this branch approaches indefinitely. - 210
7 The Philosophical Dictionary, one of the most significant and effective expressions of militant enlightenment, was a huge success, being widely distributed not only in France, but also in many other European countries, including Russia. Having caused a lot of unsuccessful denials from theologians, the Philosophical Dictionary, at the same time, was subjected to legal condemnation by the authorities. Although all knowledgeable people had no doubt that the "Philosophical Dictionary" was written by Voltaire, there was no formal evidence against him, and he stubbornly denied his authorship, asking his friends to help him in this.-211
8 "Treatise on Human Nature" was written by D. Hume in 1734-1737, during his stay in France.- 217
9 Under the universal idea of Vl. Solovyov implies the free unification in the absolute of all animated elements of being as a divine prototype and the desired state of the world.- 217
10 Monad- a concept used in a number of philosophical systems to refer to the constitutive elements of being. According to G. V. Leibniz, the real world consists of countless mental active substances, indivisible primary elements of being - monads, which are in relation to a pre-established harmony. - 224
11 Nominalists- representatives of a philosophical doctrine that denies the ontological significance of universals, asserting that universals do not exist in reality, but only as a concept, in thinking. - 239
The subject of philosophy.
Philosophy
The subject of philosophy
By the number of recognized origins
Monism (recognizes one principle: God, Absolute, World mind, Matter, etc.)
Dualism (recognizes two principles: Yin and Yang, Spirit and Matter, Darkness and Light, etc.)
Pluralism (recognizes many principles: elements, atoms, monads, dharmas, etc.)
By the quality of the recognized origins
Materialism (matter is primary, spirit is secondary)
Idealism (spirit is primary, matter is secondary)
o Objective idealism: the spiritual principle exists outside and independently of our consciousness
o Subjective idealism: the spiritual principle is the very human "I"
According to the method of knowledge
- Empiricism (based on sensory experience - facts, observations, experiments)
- Rationalism (relies on reason - axioms, proofs, theorems)
- Irrationalism (relies on "superintelligent" sources of knowledge - intuition, revelation, insight)
According to God's understanding
- Theism (God as person)
- Deism (God as the faceless root cause of the universe)
- Pantheism ("God is in everything")
- Atheism (God is a Fiction)
According to the nature of the philosophical system
- Metaphysics - the search for the ultimate foundations of being and cognition (an attempt to comprehend the world in its completeness and unambiguity)
- Dialectics - the search for truth in the clash of opposites (an attempt to comprehend the world in its development and inconsistency)
Functions of philosophy.
Different researchers distinguish different functions of philosophy. There are enough of them. Most opinions recognize the following functions of philosophy as the main ones.
worldview- lies in the ability of philosophical science to describe the picture of the world and combine knowledge of various sciences, practices and arts. It is characterized by an abstract-theoretical approach to explaining the world. In this regard, the philosophical concepts themselves are distinguished by a dual nature, expressed in an attraction either to science or to pseudoscience.
Methodological- consists in identifying the most optimal ways to achieve certain goals, for example, designing scientific knowledge, social practice or aesthetic creativity. Methods and principles of action are implied that have a fundamental, and not a narrow, meaning. These methods include the historical method. The functions of philosophy are largely aimed at clarifying the content of the main principles of science and practice.
humanistic- manifests itself quite clearly and is realized in an extremely attentive attitude towards people. Philosophy is called upon to be attentive to people. Therefore, she does not limit herself to a purely scientific approach, and ethical and aesthetic approaches are also widely used.
Practical - is to care for the welfare of people, that is, in morality.
predictive- formulates hypotheses of general trends in the development of matter, the world, consciousness, and man. The probability of prediction increases with the degree to which philosophy is based on scientific knowledge.
critical- applies to other disciplines, and to philosophy itself. Since antiquity, the actual principle of this science has been the postulate of exposing everything to doubt. This is understood not as abstract nihilism, but as constructive criticism based on dialectical negation.
The Life and Teachings of Confucius.
Confucius lived from 552 to 479 BC. He was born (most likely) into an aristocratic family. It was the time that got the name "spring and autumn period". The patriarchal power of the emperor was losing ground, and in its place came the rule of the rulers of individual kingdoms. Confucius' father was 63-year-old official Shu Lianghe, and his mother was 17-year-old concubine Yan Zhengzai. Very soon, the father died and the mat, in order to avoid the wrath of the legal wife, left the house with her son. From childhood, the boy worked hard, lived in poverty and need. He realized very early on how important it is to be cultural and an educated person. Confucius spent a lot of time on self-education and reflection. In his younger years, he served as the Minister of Justice in the Kingdom of Lu. This was an era of change.
The thinker's name is kung fu tzu(Master Kun). The Latin form Confucius was introduced by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century. This name eventually transformed into Confucius, and the teaching was called Confucianism.
Confucius was the founder of the philosophical school ryu (ju)- "moralists, scientists." The basis for building a perfect society, in his opinion, was humanity (zheng or ren). An important place in the social structure was occupied by the concept of whether - the performance of rituals and rituals, and qi - the observance of moral standards in Everyday life. As an example and standard, Confucius cited a true gentleman, a highly moral person who always does what he sees fit, regardless of circumstances and consequences. Confucianism was based on the veneration of ancient wisdom. Observing the discord and civil strife that then reigned in China, the philosopher turned his gaze to the depths of centuries, when there was peace and harmony. Confucius' dream was to restore the principles of government that guided the emperors Wen and Wu.
Tien(heaven) Confucius called the main spiritual goal of man. The main task of the ruler tianzi- "son of heaven") was the maintenance of order. He considered his teaching to be heavenly, since a person should always strive for harmony with the universe. But the most important thing is to realize your goal and strive to achieve it.
"Lunyu"- "conversations and judgments" - a collection of instructions and reasoning on the topic of morality and society. This is a kind of code of conduct for an ideal person. According to one version, the author of this book was Confucius himself, according to another, his followers. The story is told in the form of the Master's instructions to his students. Term zheng- “humane, humane”.
Confucius divides people into three categories:
1. shen-ren- sage;
1. Jun Tzu- a noble person who follows the truth in everything;
2. xiao-ren- "little man", living without thinking about moral values.
Socrates, his life and teachings.
Socrates- (lived in 469-399 BC), ancient Greek philosopher from Athens, one of the founders of dialectics. He searched for the truth by asking leading questions (the Socratic method). He expounded his doctrine orally; the main source of information about his teachings is the writings of his students Xenophon and Plato. The dialectic method was used to find the truth by asking leading questions - the so-called Socratic method (Maieutics).
The goal of Socrates' philosophy is self-knowledge as a way to comprehend the good; virtue is knowledge or wisdom. For subsequent eras, Socrates became the embodiment of the ideal of the sage.
The name of Socrates is associated with the first fundamental division of the history of ancient philosophy into pre-Socratic and post-Socratic, reflecting the interest of early philosophers of the 6th-5th centuries in natural philosophy (the established term for this period: “pre-Socratics”), and the subsequent generation of sophists of the 5th century in ethical and political topics, the main one being education virtuous person and citizen. At the end of his life, Socrates was accused of "worshiping new deities" and "corrupting the youth" and sentenced to death (he took hemlock poison).
The subject of his philosophical discussions are human consciousness, soul, human life in general, and not space, not nature, as was the case with his predecessors. And although he has not yet reached the Platonic or Aristotelian understanding of philosophy, there is no doubt that he laid the foundations of their views. Analyzing the problems of human existence, Socrates paid the main attention in his speeches and conversations to ethical issues, that is, to those norms according to which a person must live in society. At the same time, the method of proving and refuting the expressed judgments differed from Socrates in a versatile and irresistible form of influence.
In his philosophical activity, Socrates was guided by two principles formulated by the oracles:
§ the need for everyone to “know thyself”
§ “no man knows anything for certain, and only a true sage knows that he knows nothing.”
On the one hand, these principles were necessary for him to fight against the sophists, whom Socrates sharply criticized for the futility of their teaching, claims to knowledge of the truth and loud statements about teaching the truth. On the other hand, the adoption of these principles should have encouraged people to expand their knowledge to comprehend the truth. The most important means, and speaking in modern philosophical language - a method for introducing people to knowledge is irony, an essential part of which is the recognition of one's ignorance.
Self-knowledge, according to Socrates, is at the same time the search for real knowledge and for what principles it is better to live, that is, it is the search for knowledge and virtue. Essentially, he equates knowledge with virtue. However, it does not limit the scope of knowledge to a statement about what it needs, or what it should be, and in this sense, knowledge simultaneously acts as a virtue. This is the fundamental principle of the ethical concept and is most fully represented in Plato's dialogue Protagoras. The ignorance of most people is manifested in the fact that they consider knowledge and virtue as two different substances, independent of each other. They believe that knowledge has no effect on human behavior, and a person often does not act as knowledge requires, but in accordance with his sensual impulses. According to Socrates, science, and in a narrower sense - knowledge, which demonstrates its inability to influence a person, especially at the moments of the impact of sensory impulses, cannot be considered science. In the light of the foregoing, it becomes clear that the ethical concept of Socrates is based not only, and perhaps not so much on morality, but on overcoming ignorance and knowledge. Apparently, his concept can be represented as follows: from ignorance, through knowledge, to virtue, and further - to a perfect person and virtuous relations between people.
Philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) - German philosopher, an objective idealist, a representative of German classical philosophy.
He created a systematic theory of dialectics - a science based on logic, a system of concepts, reason “what is reasonable is real; and what is real is reasonable. The absolute identity of being and thinking is the main backbone principle in philosophy
G.W.F. Hegel, consistently concretized in logic, nature, thinking (spirit).
The foundation of the world Absolute(world mind, world spirit, absolute idea) - an impersonal, timeless creative force that embodies the need for the development of nature, society and knowledge.
It is internally (immanently) inherent in all manifestations of the material and spiritual, objective and subjective, and constitutes their hidden essence. The absolute idea is the substance that constitutes the essence and fundamental principle of all things.
The central concept of dialectics G. V. F. Hegel - development as a characteristic of the activity of the absolute.
The general scheme of world development is:
1) the supertemporal movement of the absolute idea in the field of pure thought in an ascending series of increasingly specific categories (being - nothing - becoming; quality - quantity - measure; essence - phenomenon - reality - concept - object - idea, culminating in an absolute idea);
2) immersion in nature - in a state of otherness and return to oneself through incarnation in a person in the forms of mental activity (in thinking, in self-awareness, gaining will and other personal qualities) ("subjective spirit");
3) supra-individual "objective spirit" (law, morality and morality - family, civil society, state) and "absolute spirit" (art, religion, philosophy as forms of self-consciousness of the spirit).
According to I. Kant, contradiction is an internal source of development, described as a triad.
This triple transformation (triad) is consistently considered by Hegel G.W.F. in new works; "Science of Logic", "Philosophy of Nature", "Philosophy of Spirit". (The founder of the theory of contradiction is Heraclitus. The meaning of dialectical contradiction was first revealed by Aristotle, who saw in it an essential moment in the definition of the subject.) The contradiction permeates the entire philosophy of G.V.F. Hegel.
Any object, concept, phenomenon, being realized, exhausts its sebp and passes into its other. Any category, being the result of a contradiction, contains a new contradiction leading to further development. A consistent analysis of the development of the absolute idea in the field of logic (pure thought), nature and society reveals the basic dialectical principles, laws and categories that form the system of Hegelian dialectics. History is “the progress of the spirit in the consciousness of freedom, consistently realized through the “spirit” of individual peoples.
Implementation of the bourgeois-democratic demands of G.V.F. Hegel saw in a compromise with the feudal-estate system within the framework of a constitutional monarchy.
Philosophy of L. Feuerbach.
The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 - 1872) is considered the final stage of German classical philosophy, of which Kant, Hegel, Schelling and Fichte were prominent representatives, and the beginning of the materialistic era in German and world philosophy.
The main direction of Feuerbach's philosophy is criticism of the German classical idealism and justification for materialism.
Materialism as a branch of philosophy arose long before Feuerbach ( Ancient Greece- Democritus and Epicurus; England of modern times - Bacon, Locke; France - enlighteners-materialists), however, these materialistic philosophical schools were mainly an internal national phenomenon of their time and were distinguished by inconsistency and contradictions, were strongly influenced by theology, sought a compromise between materialistic ideas and the existence of God (deism was, in particular, a form of such a compromise).
The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach was the first case of deeply consistent materialism, the main features of which were:
a complete break with religion (atheism) and liberation from centuries of religious influence;
an attempt to explain God and religion from a materialistic point of view, based on human nature;
materialistic, taking into account the latest achievements of science, explanation of the problems of the surrounding world and man;
great interest in socio-political issues;
belief in the cognizability of the surrounding world.
Feuerbach's philosophy became a watershed between German classical philosophy and German materialism XIX century, the forerunner of Marxism. Formed under great influence Feuerbach's philosophy, Marxist philosophy (K. Marx, F. Engels) went beyond the national boundaries of Germany and became a global philosophy, especially popular in the middle and end of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries. In a number of countries that followed the communist path of development (USSR, China, Eastern Europe, some countries of Asia and Africa), materialistic philosophy(which grew up on the basis of the philosophy of Feuerbach, Marx, Engels, etc.) became official and obligatory.
The subject of philosophy.
Philosophy- this is a theoretically developed worldview, a system of the most general theoretical views on the world, on the place of man in it, understanding the various forms of his attitude to the world. Two main features characterize philosophical outlook- its consistency, firstly, and, secondly, the theoretical, logically substantiated nature of the system of philosophical views.
The subject of philosophy- everything that exists in the fullness of its meaning and content. Philosophy is not aimed at determining the external interactions and the exact boundaries between the parts and particles of the world, but at understanding their internal connection and unity.
main philosophical directions.
Hilarion, XI V. (“Word of Law and Grace”) - explains the essence of Christian teaching; the idea of the equality of peoples before "grace" is affirmed. The era of "law" (before Christianity) is symbolized by the images of the shadow, the moon, and the era of "grace" is symbolized by the sun. Glorified Rus' and Prince Vladimir . Philotheus, XVI V. creates religious doctrine about Moscow as "the third Rome". "Old Rome", the former center of Christianity, was conquered by the barbarians. "New Rome" (Constantinople) perished under the blows of the Turkish conquerors. The "Third Rome" - Moscow - is destined to play the role of the successor of the Christian doctrine. Philotheus explains the fall of "old" and "new" Rome by the fact that they were punished for betraying Christianity as a true faith. Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky (XVI century)- correspondence. Ivan the Terrible, referring to the history of Roman emperors, advocated an absolute, unlimited monarchy. Andrei Kurbsky, referring to enlightened European monarchism, defended the idea of a state based on the observance of the rule of law, limiting the actions of the tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. The dispute was resolved in favor of Ivan the Terrible: an autocratic form of government was established in Russia . Philosophy of the Enlightenment. M. Lomonosov, XVIII V. - materialist and atomist: formulated the law of conservation of matter and motion, developed the corpuscular theory of the structure of matter and the mechanical theory of heat. He opposed the Norman theory of the formation of the Russian state. A.N. Radishchev, 18th century(“About a man, about his mortality and immortality”, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”) - the human soul is immortal and is reborn after the death of the body in other bodies, therefore the human race exists. He criticizes the despotism and arbitrariness of the landowners. Serfdom is not only contrary to natural human rights, but also economically inefficient. Autocracy is a brake on social progress in Russia.
Decembrists (P. Pestel, N. Muravyov, I. Yakushkin, M. Lunin, V. Kuchelbecker and others) set themselves the task of putting an end to serfdom, to destroy autocratic despotism, class privileges. Part of the Decembrists stood for the constitutional limitation of the autocracy, the other for the republic. Freedom of the individual, speech and press, freedom of religion, allotment of land to the peasants, inviolability of private property are the priority tasks that must be solved in the country. Most of the Decembrists saw a means to solve them in a military coup (without the participation of the masses); some considered it expedient to take the path of peaceful reforms carried out from above.
P. Chaadaev with his “Philosophical Letters"literally blew up public opinion and caused heated discussions for many years. In his assessment of Russia, they saw the overthrow of national shrines. Chaadaev says that Russia, instead of uniting the West and the East due to its geographical position, generally fell out of historical progress - “we belong to those nations that are not part of humanity ... we never went along with other peoples ... we stand as if out of time. There is no positive ideological tradition in Russia, since at one time it adopted Christianity in its Byzantine form (Orthodoxy) and was excluded from the unity of European peoples based on Catholicism. If there was any movement, it was in the growth of slavery: having freed themselves from the Tatar yoke, the Russians fell into a new slavery - serfdom. However, the barrenness of Russia's historical past is, according to Chaadaev, a boon. If in Catholicism there is a certain unifying principle that has shaped the Western world, created a certain political structure, philosophy, science and literature, improved morals, then Orthodoxy in Russia has preserved the essence of Christianity in its original purity. The vocation of Russia in the rapprochement of Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Russia will become the center of European intellectual life if it learns the values of the West. After Chaadaev, the topic of Russia's self-determination and the search for its place in the "West-East" system became one of the most important in the socio-political and philosophical thought of Russia.
There were two main trends: Westernizers and Slavophiles. "Slavophiles" (A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin, A.N. Ostrovsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov) believed that Russia had its own way of development. The Russian people have their own vital values: Orthodoxy with its spirit of catholicity and holiness, and the "peasant community" based on collectivism and mutual assistance. European culture, in contrast to Russian culture, is characterized by individualism, selfishness, rationalism, "philistinism" and the cult of mediocrity. Slavophiles criticized Peter I for leading Russia down the wrong path and enslaving everyone in the name of the state. They insisted on the need to abolish serfdom and believed in the great mission of the Russian people - it was Russia that was called upon to save Western civilization from bourgeois decay and lack of spirituality. "Westerners" (V.G. Belinsky, V.P. Botkin, A.I. Herzen, T.G. Granovsky, N.P. Ogarev, K.D. Kavelin and others), on the contrary, they were convinced that Russia would have to follow the same path as the West. Russia lagged behind Western Europe, mothballed itself, and now must catch up. It has no special “unique” historical path. They approved of the signs of a bourgeois society that appeared then in Russia and positively assessed the activities of Peter the Great in the Europeanization of the country. Western culture attracted them primarily with its humanism and liberalism: the idea of freedom, the dignity of the individual, the thirst for justice. They criticized the despotic autocratic power and the ignorance of the people. Russia must master Western values and become a normal civilized country. Common to these currents is an attempt to draw a path for Russia's development that would meet Russia's national interests, bring the country out of backwardness and raise it to the level of resolving not only its own. But also universal problems. Slavophiles and Westernizers solved a common problem, but they offered different ways and means. They had “one love for Russia, but not the same” (A.I. Herzen).
Soil science. F.M.Dostoevsky as an ideologist of pochvennichestvo spoke about the negative consequences of Peter the Great's reforms. The people did not accept European civilization. The task of the Russians is "to create for themselves a new form, their own, native, taken from the soil, from the principles of the people and the spirit." Dostoevsky notes the inconsistency of the Russian character. In which both humility and conceit, and passion, and conscientiousness coexist. The Russian people are “God-bearing people, they are destined for a universal mission – the spiritual healing of Europe and the creation of a new world civilization. Russian "collectivism" and "sobornost" are the great advantages of the Russian people. The main themes of Dostoevsky's works are man, freedom, the struggle between good and evil in man. Man is a microcosm, the center of being around which everything revolves. Human nature contradictory and irrational, his soul is bifurcated and there is a constant struggle between good and evil. The main thing in a person is freedom. Man can come to goodness only through freedom. That is why Dostoevsky is categorically against the violent way of bringing people to happiness - "forced harmony" in society (the imposition of good!), whether it be Catholic or socialist, it doesn't matter (this is what the well-known parable about the "Grand Inquisitor" is about). A person must make a conscious free choice. However, freedom is also ambiguous: it can be the root of both good and evil, and it has its limits (the famous question - is everything allowed to a person?) No, not everything. Dostoevsky explores the case when freedom turns into self-will, self-will leads to evil, evil to crime, and crime to punishment. Freedom, turning into self-will, does not want to know any restrictions, any shrines. If there is no God, if there is a man himself - God, then everything is allowed. But whoever, in his willfulness, does not know the limits of his freedom, loses his freedom, becomes obsessed with his "idea." Suffering is the consequence of evil. But suffering also cleanses from evil: through repentance, the soul is transformed and a moral rebirth of the personality takes place. Dostoevsky leads the characters in his novels through this process: freedom-evil-redemption.
N.Ya.Danilevsky (“Russia and Europe”) to justify the special path of Russia, he creates an original philosophical and historical concept, which laid the foundation for a whole trend in this area. There is no single human civilization. Humanity is an abstract idea. In reality, there are only cultural-historical types that go through the same path of development: periods of birth, maturation, flourishing, decrepitude and death. Any talk about the superiority of this or that culture is pointless: they are not worse and not best friend friend, only are on different stages development. Europe and Russia are two different, inseparable civilizations, with different cultural foundations. “Europe is not accidentally, but essentially hostile to us,” N.Ya. Danilevsky insists. European civilization has passed its heyday and is now on the way to decrepitude, it will be replaced by the emerging Slavic-Russian civilization.
Conservatism. K.N. Leontiev("Byzantism and Slavism") shared Danilevsky's teaching about the multitude of "cultural-historical types", but he significantly modified this teaching. First of all, Leontiev tried to establish the laws of the maturation and death of cultures. Every culture goes through three periods: "original simplicity", "blooming complexity" and "dying" (through "secondary simplification") in the process of "equalizing mixing". The second period - flourishing complexity - is characterized by a variety of parts, with the unity of the whole. This is a period social inequality, the formation of an elite - tribal and cultural, a strong state with rigid centralization. The period of mixed simplification is characterized by the desire for universal equality and democratization, the result of which is: the flourishing of technology, the dying of art, the vulgarization of life, the thirst for pleasure, not creativity, but mechanical work. By the beginning of the 19th century, Western Europe had completed the period of "blooming complexity" and is on the path of the "egalitarian process", that is, democratization and the dying of culture. Russia faces the main task - not to submit to Europe in the egalitarian progress "to stand in its separateness." To this end, he proposed to "freeze Russia so that it does not live," i.e. frozen in current form until better times. "It's time to learn how to react," said the ideologue of conservatism. The stronghold of the reaction is Byzantism, based on Orthodoxy and strong autocratic power.
L. Tolstoy - the theory of "non-resistance to evil by violence". Tolstoy believes that it is possible to solve existing social problems and create a harmonious society only with the help of a moral sermon addressed to every person. Violence must be excluded from social life, since it is not capable of generating anything but violence. Tolstoy equally condemns both the government and the revolutionaries for violence. Violence must be neutralized. For this:
1) stop committing direct violence yourself, as well as prepare for it,
2) not to take part in any kind of violence committed by other people (in particular, in order to neutralize the violence of state power, one must “not participate in this system, in what supports it: in the military, in the courts, taxes, false teaching, etc.”),
3) do not approve of any violence. Tolstoy doubts the progress of society. Progress has touched only a minority that enjoys the achievements of civilization at the expense of the vast majority. The writer and philosopher also has a negative attitude towards culture (!). He is entirely on the side of "nature" against "culture", and "nature" is the people. In the spirit of the Slavophiles, Tolstoy idealizes the people, calling them the bearers of the true faith and pure morality.
revolutionary democratic direction. A.I. Herzen- the concept of "Russian socialism". Russia has lagged far behind the West, but the Russian man has retained his soul and national character. The spirit of the Russian people is embodied in the rural community in the form of the foundations of direct democracy: secular gathering, joint work, joint existence. In this sense, the peasant community is, as it were, "instinctive communism", and this will help Russia to avoid the bourgeois stage of development with its sharp contradictions. But at the same time the individual is absorbed and repressed by the community. Therefore, Western science, political freedoms and legal norms are needed. Socialism must be a means of liberating the individual. Terror he strongly rejects terror.
N.G. Chernyshevsky ("What to do?") believed that the law of increasing progress operates in history, knowledge plays the role of the main engine, and revolution is a means of radically changing everything social order. Chernyshevsky saw the only way to solve the most acute problems of Russia in the peasant revolution. Serfdom should be replaced by a system of industrial and agricultural associations.
M. Bakunin (“State and anarchy”) defended the idea of stateless socialism, anarchism. The whole history of mankind is a steady movement from the "kingdom of animality" to the "kingdom of freedom". The main oppressor human race, the state is the source of evil and misfortune. It is an organized expression of the violence and selfishness of officials. Religion also helps to exercise dominance over people. In order to bring humanity to a state of freedom, it is necessary to “blow up” the state, to exclude the principle of power from the life of society. Bakunin was convinced that the Russian peasant is always ready for a revolution, since he is a rebel by nature. In this regard, the revolutionaries should go to the people and call them to revolt. In place of the state, a social structure must arise based on the principles of self-government, autonomy and free federation of individuals, communities, provinces, nations.
P.N. Tkachev advocated terror against autocracy - "the only means of the moral and social revival of Russia." The "minority party" should push the state towards a social revolution, the destruction of the existing state and the creation of a new one - a state of revolutionary dictatorship.
P.L. Lavrov (“Historical Letters”) believed that the main driving force of the historical process is critically thinking individuals, i.e. advanced intelligence. Only they are able to formulate a social ideal and convey it to the working people with the help of propaganda. He called on the intelligentsia to actively promote socialist ideas among the Russian people: in order to prepare a revolution, one must go to the people, merge with them and wake them up. At the same time, Lavrov was well aware that a revolution cannot be artificial - it must mature in the depths of society.
Russian cosmism- the doctrine of the inseparable unity of man, the Earth, the Cosmos, the cosmic nature of man and his limitless possibilities for space exploration. Representatives: N. Fedorov, Vl. Vernadsky, K. Tsiolkovsky, A. Chizhevsky. Two directions: natural science and religious.
The main idea of N. Fedorov's "philosophy of the common cause" is the victory over death, the achievement of human immortality and the resurrection of all previous generations. The moral duty of descendants is to restore life to all previous generations. For the resurrection of the dead, it is necessary to stop all enmity between people, the moral unification of all people and the active regulation of nature through science and technology. The task of science is: 1) to extend the life of a person as much as possible, to make his body immortal, 2) to provide all the resurrected previous generations with a place for existence - through space exploration and resettlement to other planets.
K. Tsiolkovsky ("Dreams of the Earth and Sky") believed that life and mind on Earth are not the only ones in the Universe. The boundless outer space is inhabited by intelligent beings of various levels of development: more "perfect" and less "perfect". More "perfect" monitor the order in the universe. Over time, in the course of evolution, a union of all intelligent higher beings of the cosmos will be formed. First - in the form of a union of those inhabiting the nearest suns, then a union of unions, and so on, ad infinitum, since the Universe itself is infinite. Earth is a "late" planet, and it has been given the right to independent development. The moral, cosmic task of the Earth is to contribute to the improvement of the Cosmos. The earthlings will be able to justify their high destiny in the matter of improving the world only by leaving the Earth and going out into the Cosmos. The invention of the rocket for him as a scientist is not an end in itself, but "a method of penetrating into the depths of the Cosmos." The essence of his cosmic philosophy: "in migration from the Earth and in the settlement of the Cosmos."
A.L. Chizhevsky is the founder of heliobiology - the science of the Sun and its influence on terrestrial processes. The scientist proves the existence of natural and cosmic rhythms, the dependence of life on Earth on the pulse of the Cosmos. The sun affects not only human health, but also social processes on our planet. Social cataclysms (wars, riots, revolutions) are largely determined by the behavior of the Sun. According to Chizhevsky's calculations, during the minimum solar activity - a minimum of mass social movements - 5%, during the peak - 60%. The cycle of solar activity is 12 years. Fatal years for Russia - 1905, 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1989 - the peak of solar activity.
Religious-idealistic direction. V.S. Soloviev(“The Crisis of Western Philosophy”, “Justification of the Good”, “Readings on God-Mankind”). Main ideas: unity, God-manhood, integral knowledge. No phenomenon can exist and be known outside of its relation to other phenomena. Any thing is known in its relation in its relation to the whole. And the whole is not just a multitude of things, but total unity. The All-One exists in all its elements, is the bearer of all its world properties. Unity includes the unconditional (absolute being - God) and the conditioned (matter). “Unity” is comprehended by “whole knowledge”, which is a synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, or, in other words, faith, thought and experience. Solovyov builds a metaphysical system of "whole knowledge", in which ontology should reveal the "unity", epistemology - to substantiate irrational knowledge, sociology - to find the highest ideal of society. The world created by God goes through three stages:
Cosmogonic process: at this stage, the nature of the world is transformed from chaos into space and the conditions necessary for the emergence of man are prepared.
historical process: with the advent of man, the internal transformation of the cosmos begins, man is an intermediary in reuniting it with God, "a link between the divine and natural worlds." His task is to overcome all manifestations of evil and imperfection of the world. moral sense human life is service to the Good. The ideal of the perfect man is Jesus Christ. Through man there is a path of elevation of being: dead matter becomes spiritualized, becomes alive.
God-human process: the history of mankind is moving towards the Kingdom of God - transfiguration and reunification with God. And this path is indicated by Jesus Christ, who unites the divine and human principles in himself. At the center of the story is the divine person of Christ. The God-man conquers death and brings the world to eternal life. The union of man and the world with God is possible only in Christ and through him - in the Church (the body of Christ). God is love, and reunion with him of man and the world is possible only through love - free, this is emphasized by V. Solovyov and all his followers. Love must bring about a triple reunion: to restore the individual man - the union of a man with a woman; restore public man, joining it to society; to restore the universal man, his inner living unity with the whole nature of the world. And the final reunion of man and the world with God is “in love, through love with love.”
L.Shestov criticizes the rationalism so characteristic of Western philosophy. The world is irrational and full of countless mysteries. We don't even know what's going on in the universe. The world around us is a world of chaos, the dominance of the elements and chance. Our mind is able to cognize only the necessary, regular, while the random and chaotic, that which constitutes the essence of the world, is hidden from it. Therefore, the claims of science and rational philosophy on the knowledge of reality untenable. The real truth is on the other side of the mind.
Philosophy of the Russian Diaspora. N.A. Berdyaev(“Spirit and Reality”, “On the Appointment of Man. The Experience of Paradoxical Ethics”, “On Slavery and Human Freedom”) - went from a Marxist to a religious philosopher. Berdyaev speaks of the crisis of philosophy: being is rational, while Western philosophy tries to cognize it in a rational way. The main ideas of his philosophical concept:
1) spirit and nature are opposite. The spirit is the subject, life, freedom, fire, creative activity - differences are overcome by love; nature - object, thing, necessity, passive activity - everything that is plural and divisible. God is spirit. Nature is secondary and derivative. Only a person who has freedom and the ability to be creative is able to transform and spiritualize nature.
2) the primacy of freedom over being. God is not responsible for the evil done in the world - he did not create freedom, which led man to sin. There are three types of freedom: the primary irrational freedom, which existed before God and man and from which everything arose; rational freedom, i.e. performance of rational duty; and freedom, imbued with love. Man freely falls away from God, driven by irrational freedom, and is called to freely return to God of his own free will and bring the whole world, united by love, to him.
2) anthropodicy (justification) of a person. Man is the point of intersection of two worlds, he reflects in himself the higher world (God-likeness) and the lower world - this duality lies in the complexity of his existence. He is the crown of the universe and the microcosm. As the image and likeness of God, man is a person. Personality is a spiritual and religious category. As a person, he has a greater value than society, nation, state. Man is a co-creator of God, he is called to creative work, his destiny is to continue God's creation of the world. Man creates from nothing, proceeding from freedom as "the baseless basis of being." And it is in creativity that a person overcomes the bone matter and he breaks into the highest spiritual reality.
SECTION 2 . THEORETICAL COURSE OF PHILOSOPHY
general characteristics philosophy of the Renaissance (main directions of philosophical thought, representatives)
Logic and philosophy
The time in question was called by the philosophers of the Renaissance New, linking it with the development of fundamentally different approaches to the development of art and science. The Renaissance is the era of the birth of capitalist relations, the creation of national states and absolute monarchies in Western Europe, the era of deep social conflicts. The specifics of the philosophical culture of the Renaissance The philosophical thought of the Renaissance covers three centuries: from early humanism of the XIV century.
- General characteristics of the philosophy of the Renaissance (the main directions of philosophical thought, representatives).
In science, the division of history into three periods is accepted: Ancient, Middle and new story. The philosophers of the Renaissance called the time in question New, linking it with the development of fundamentally different approaches to the development of art and science.
The Renaissance is the era of the birth of capitalist relations, the creation of national states and absolute monarchies in Western Europe, the era of deep social conflicts.
The specifics of the philosophical culture of the Renaissance
The philosophical thought of the Renaissance spans three centuries: from early humanism XIV V. to natural philosophy XVI-early XVII centuries It cannot be regarded only as the result of the decomposition of medieval scholasticism, it is opposed to the whole system medieval philosophy, because it is being built, developed on fundamentally different grounds, although this does not mean a complete gap between them.
The new philosophical culture was characterized by:
1) anti-scholastic character (although for the state scholasticism remained the official philosophy and its principles were studied in most universities);
2) pantheism as the main principle of worldview;
3) anthropocentrism and humanism.
In the Renaissance, a new style of thinking is developed, which assigns the main role not to the form of expression of the idea, but to its content. The scholastic tradition of creating philosophical writings was associated with a dogmatic, “mentoring” manner of presentation, built on the interpretation of an authoritative, religiously consistent text. Renaissance philosophers opposed this approachgenre of literary and rhetorical,designed for educated secular readers, and not just for a highly specialized audience of professional theologians.
They proposed to replace the hierarchical idea of the universe with the concept of the world, in which the interpenetration of the earthly, natural and Divine principles takes place. Nature was interpreted by them pantheistically, what was the influence of Neoplatonism with its doctrine of the World Soul. According to one of the prominent representatives of this direction, Dam, The soul, having descended into the vast mass of nature, penetrates and illuminates it, just as the Sun penetrates with its rays and illuminates a dark cloud. Thus, the Soul informs matter of meaning, value and beauty, without which the world would not exist.
The philosophy of the Renaissance is aimed at man,and not to God, which was characteristic of medieval culture.Augustine the Blessedbelieved that the main content human life- this is the desire for happiness, and happiness is the knowledge of God by a person and the understanding of his complete dependence on him. Morally valuable, good deeds are characteristic of a minority of people. They owe their impeccable morality to their eternal Divine election to salvation. This election is called Divine grace. It does not depend on human deeds, but leads the elect directly to paradise. God himself leads a person to good, and free will can lead to sin and evil. The human body is perishable and perishable, subject to the temptations and blessings of the sensual world. In this regard, the soul has superiority over it. The more completely the soul ignores the demands of the mortal body, the better it is for the posthumous destinies of mankind.
In the Renaissance, man himself was considered beautiful and sublime. These were not only his soul, but also his flesh. Renaissance humanists believed that by granting free will to man, God predestined him to the highest appointment "to become his own sculptor and creator" 1 to strive for the infinite perfection of one's nature.
In general, the philosophy of the Renaissance went through three periods:
I period - humanistic ( XIV - ser. 15th century)
Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Lorenzo Valla
II period - Neoplatonic (ser. XV - XVI c.) Nicholas of Cusa, Pico della Mirandolla, Paracelsus
III period - natural philosophy ( XVI - beginning. XVII c.) Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei.
Humanism historically and typologically determined the first period of the development of the philosophy of the Renaissance, becoming the core of a new humanistic worldview, which, in the fight against scholasticism, won the right to be philosophy. This approach significantly changed the nature of philosophizing, the sources and style of thinking, the very image of the theoretical scientist.Essence new philosophy - anthropocentrism. Man is the leading link in the whole chain of universal existence. The world is the potency of God, but only an impulse was given by Him, and then Nature is revealed like a book, and man is the crown of her creation. He himself is the Master. Antiquity honored heroes, the Middle Ages honored saints, the Renaissance honored Man. And the task of philosophy is not the opposition in man of the divine and the natural, the spiritual and the material, but the disclosure of their harmonious unity.
The first to present these ideas most clearly and vividly was Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321). Everything human is put in dependence and submission to reason.
Another prominent representative of Renaissance humanism is Francesco Petrarch (1304 - 1374). Lorenzo Valla (1407 - 1457) also belongs to the outstanding humanists. In your dialogue"On pleasure as a true good"He consistently considers three points of view onethical values: Stoic, Epicurean and Christian.
One of the outstanding exponents of the ideas of Neoplatonism in this period was Nicholas of Cusa (1401 - 1464). If medieval scholasticism believed that the goal of human knowledge is to achieve "divine truth", which is once and for all given through faith, then Nicholas of Cusa presented the process of cognition as the achievement of the infinitely perfect, where "all things consist of opposites in various degrees"
Knowledge is infinitebecause of the infinity of its object and its own incompleteness.
The pantheistic ideas of Renaissance Neoplatonism were most evident in Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494). The philosopher wrote a treatise, in 900 theses which reflected the level of knowledge achieved by mankind. The general program of Picodella Mirandola (the concept of "consent") is to renew the philosophy by universal reconciliation of various teachings.
Renaissance pantheists see nature as a kind of living whole, permeated with magical forces. Interesting in this regard are the views of the physician, alchemist and astrologer Paracelsus (Philip Aureola Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim) 1493-1541). He believed that the processes taking place in the human body are chemical in nature, and therefore both their study and the treatment of diseases should be associated with chemistry.
The ideas of Neoplatonism inspired thinkers to create an integral philosophical system that opposed medieval scholasticism;
Was proposed new picture world, pantheistic in content, although retaining elements of mysticism;
The creation of the concept of man as a microcosm opened the way for understanding his natural essence. It was not completely materialistic and contained the recognition of the Divine nature of the human spirit;
The development of the concept of "consent" of philosophical teachings contributed to the humanistic rethinking of the Christian moral ideal.
Features of the natural-philosophical thought of the Renaissance manifested themselves:
In the separation of the subject of science from the subject of religion, which contributed to the development of the scientific worldview;
In the formation of the doctrine of pantheism, free from theology, bringing God closer to Nature and dissolving Him in it;
In the development of the theory of knowledge, combining sensory and rational moments.
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